| Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is the sixth-largest country in the world, the only one to
occupy an entire continent, and the largest in the region of Australasia/Oceania. It also includes a
number of secondary islands, the largest of which is Tasmania, an Australian State. The country is governed
as a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.
Australia's neighbouring countries include New Zealand to the southeast
and Indonesia, East Timor, and
Papua New Guinea to the north. The shortest border distance is
between the mainlands of Papua New Guinea and Australia at about 150 km; however, the nearest inhabited island, Boigu Island, is about 5 km from Papua New Guinea. This has led to a complicated border
arrangement allowing access for 'traditional' uses of the waterway across the border by Papua New Guinean people and Torres Strait Islanders.
Origin and history of the name
The name Australia derives from Latin australis meaning southern,
and dates back to 2nd century legends of an "unknown southern land"
(ie. terra australis incognita). The English explorer Matthew Flinders named the land Terra
Australis which was later abbreviated to the current form. Previously, when the Dutch explored the area they named it
Nova Hollandicus or New Holland.
The word "Australia" is pronounced locally as either
[əˈstɹeɪljə] or
[əˈstɹeɪjə] (IPA).
History
Main article: History of Australia
The exact date of the first human habitation of Australia is still a subject of considerable research. There is strong scientific
evidence for a presence around 50,000 years ago, a period of massive ecological upheaval in Australia which is believed to be
consistent with human colonisation. However, there is some speculation about considerably earlier arrivals, even as far as
100,000 or more years ago. These first Australians were the remote ancestors of the current Australian Aborigines, and arrived via land bridges and navigation of significant sea crossings
from present-day Southeast Asia.
The sharing of animal and plant species between adjacent parts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Papua and nearby Indonesian islands point to
early land bridges closed when sea levels rose. The historically traditional movement of people between these places in primitive
sailing craft for trade and fishing, point to the possibility of Arab and Chinese traders to the northern islands learning of and then visiting the shores of the southern
continent from as early as the 9th century. Maps compiled in Europe from the late 1400s show parts of the coastline.
The land was first discovered by Europeans in 1522 by the Portuguese explorer Cristóvão de Mendonça, but it was only in the 17th century that the island continent became the subject of European exploration, with several expeditions
sighting Terra Australis: The Dutch explorer Willem Jansz (1606), the Portuguese explorer Luis
Vaez de Torres in Spanish service (1607), and
the Dutch explorers Jan
Carstensz (1623), Dirk Hartog and
Abel Tasman (1642), after whom is named
the island of Tasmania, but which he himself originally named after Anthoonij van Diemenslandt.
The first English explorers were Willem Dampier on the west coast of
the continent in 1688, and Lieutenant James
Cook who, in 1770, claimed the eastern two-thirds of the continent for Britain, despite orders from King George III to first conclude a treaty with the indigenous population. His report to
London that Australia was uninhabited (see Terra nullius) provided impetus for the establishment of a penal colony there following the loss of the
American colonies.
The British Crown Colony of New South Wales began by the establishment of a settlement (later to become Sydney) in Port Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip on January 26,
1788. The date of arrival of the First Fleet was later to become the date of Australia's
national day, Australia
Day.
Van Diemen's Land (i.e. the present day Tasmania) was settled in 1803, and became a separate
colony in 1825. The rest of the continent, what is now Western
Australia, was formally claimed by the United Kingdom in 1829. Following the spread of British settlement, separate Colonies were created from parts of New
South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851 and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded, as part of
the Colony of South Australia, in 1863.
During the period of 1855-1890, the six Crown Colonies each successively became self-governing colonies, which managed most of their own affairs. British law was adopted in
each colony at the time of the granting of responsible
government, and was subsequently modified by the individual legislatures. The British government retained control of some matters, especially foreign affairs, defence, international shipping. Despite its heavily rural based economy Australia remained significantly
urbanised, centred particularly around the cities of Melbourne and Sydney. In the 1880s 'Marvellous Melbourne' was the second largest city in the British Empire. Australia also gained a reputation as a 'working man's
paradise' and as a laboratory for social reform, with the world's first
secret ballot and first national Labor Party government.
On 1 January 1901, federation of the Colonies was completed after a 10 year gestation period, and the
Commonwealth of Australia was born, as a dominion of the British Empire.
The Australian Capital Territory was
separated from New South Wales in 1911, to provide a neutral place for the proposed new
federal capital of Canberra (the initial capital having been Melbourne). Although Australia had become independent in many respects, the British government retained some powers until the Statute of Westminster of 1931 was ratified by
Australia in 1942, and the theoretical authority of the British
Parliament over individual states was not completely severed until the passing of the Australia Act in 1986. The original constitution gave the federal
government power to make laws relating to any race of people except Aborigines. In 1967, a referendum supported by more than
ninety per cent of voters gave the federal government the right to enact laws to protect Aboriginal people and to count them in
the census.
Government
Main article: Government of Australia
The Commonwealth of Australia is a constitutional monarchy: Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen of Australia, a role distinct and separate from her position as Elizabeth II of the United
Kingdom, and is generally considered to be the head of state, although
that term is found nowhere in the Constitution or the law. The Queen is nominally represented by the Governor-General; in practice virtually the
entire constitutional role of a monarch is performed independently by the Governor-General. Under the Australian
Constitution the role of the monarch is almost entirely ceremonial. Although the
constitution theoretically gives extensive executive power to the
Governor-General, these powers are seldom used directly, and by convention, exercised only on advice from the Cabinet. The Cabinent consists of the senior ministers of the
government and are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Government is undertaken by three inter-connected arms of government:
The Separation of Powers is the principle whereby the three arms of government undertake their activities separate from
the others:
- the Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when
appropriate;
- the Executive enacts, administers and enforces the laws;
- the Judiciary interprets the laws, using as a basis the laws as enacted and explanatory statements made in the Legislature
during the enactment;
- the other arms cannot influence the Judiciary.
The legal basis for the nation changed with the passage of the Australia
Act 1986, and associated legislation in the parliament of the United Kingdom. Until the passage of this Act, a limited range of Australian
cases could be referred to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council for final appeal. With this act of
parliament, Australian law was made unequivocally the law in the nation, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the single highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed. (Act:pdf) (http://scaleplus.law.gov.au/html/pasteact/1/973/pdf/AustraliaAct86.pdf)
Politics
Main article: Politics of Australia
Australia has a bicameral federal Parliament, comprising a Senate (or upper house) with 76 Senators, and a House of Representatives (or lower house) with 150 Members. Members of the lower
house are elected on a population basis from single-member constituencies, known technically as 'divisions' but more commonly, as
'electorates' or 'seats'. The more populous the state, the more members it will have in the House of Representatives. There is a
minimum of 5 members for each state. In the Senate, each state regardless of population is represented by twelve Senators, and
each mainland territory by two. Elections for both chambers are held every three years, usually with only one half of the Senate
being eligible for re-election, as the Senators have overlapping terms of six years each. The government is formed in the lower
house, and the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives is the Prime Minister. On only one short-lived
occasion has a Senator become Prime Minister.
An exception to the constitutional conventions
occurred on 11 November 1975, when
Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismissed the Prime
Minister, Gough Whitlam, and his Government. This remains the single most
controversial event in Australian political history.
In 1999, a referendum was held on the question of constitutional change to a republic, with an appointed President replacing the Queen as head of
state, but this was rejected. Various surveys conducted before and since the referendum suggest that the majority of
Australians favour some form of republic, and hence many people ascribe the negative result of the referendum to dissatisfaction
with the particular republican model that was proposed (A further discussion of this issue can be found in the topic Australian republicanism).
States and Territories
Main article: Australian
States and Territories
Australia is divided into six states and several territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania,
Victoria and Western Australia. The two major territories are the Northern Territory (NT) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). The ACT also incorporates a separate area within New South
Wales known as Jervis Bay Territory which serves as a naval
base and sea port for the national capital.
Australia also has several inhabitated external territories (Norfolk
Island, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands) and several largely uninhabited external territories: Coral Sea Islands Territory, Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the
Australian Antarctic Territory.
The Australian Capital Territory was
created at the chosen site of the capital city Canberra in an area called the
Molongo River
Valley. Canberra was founded as a compromise between the two largest cities, Melbourne and Sydney. The name 'Canberra' is derived from the
indigenous Ngunnawal language, which
is loosely translated into English as "meeting place".
Geography
Main article: Geography of Australia
By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid — 40% of the land mass is covered by sand dunes.
Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country
has a tropical climate: part is tropical rainforests, part grasslands, and part
desert. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast
and extends for over 1,200 kilometres. Uluru (until 1986 known as Ayers Rock), is the second largest monolith in the world and is located in central Australia (the largest being Mount Augustus in Western Australia). The largest city in the world by area (not by population) is Mount Isa in northern Queensland.
Flora and fauna
Main articles: Australian fauna, Australian flora
Although most of the continent is desert or semi-arid, Australia nevertheless includes a diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical
rainforests. Because of the great age of the continent, its very variable weather patterns, and its long-term geographic
isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique. Such species that are famously Australian include: koalas, kangaroos, emus, platypuses, wombats and echidnas.
As well as the natives, colonisation and modernisation has brought many flora and fauna to Australia from around the world, some of which have
done too well and have reached plague proportion, often threatening, if not having already wiped out various native species. One
species that saw its demise due to hunting after European settlement was the Tasmanian Tiger, or Thylacine.
See also:
Economy
Main article: Economy of Australia
Australia's economic development was slow at first and
based on the export of wool. This all changed with the discovery of gold in 1851 and mining has,
overall, been the most important sector of the Australian economy. By the late 20th century, Australia had a prosperous Western-style mixed economy, with a per capita GDP on par with the four dominant Western European economies. In recent years, the Australian
economy has been resilient in the face of global economic downturn, with steady growth. Rising output in the domestic economy has
been offsetting the global slump, and business and consumer confidence remains robust. Australia's emphasis on reforms is another
key factor behind the economy's strength. In the 1980s, the Labor Party, led by Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Treasurer Paul Keating, played a crucial role in modernizing Australia's economy.
Since 1996, the Coalition government, led by Prime
Minister John Howard, has continued to implement microeconomic reform
policies. Some have claimed that the deregulation of the labour market during this period has resulted in a needed flexibility in
the labour force. Others have criticised these deregulations as having a negative impact on worker's wages, safety and health
grounds. Legislation introduced during this period sought to reduce union
involvement and power, and has preferred to emphasise enterprise bargaining (a tendency towards wage bargaining). Also during
this period, the Coalition government deregulated numerous other industries, including the telecommunications sector, and
privatised many of the pre-existing natural monopolies.
Since the recession "Australia had to have" (P. Keating) in the early 1990s, the Australian economy has not suffered a
recession in over 13 years. Even the downturn of the early 2000s did not affect its consistent GDP growth. As of October 2004, unemployment had
fallen to a level of 5.2%, the lowest level since the late 1970s.
Many raw materials (including resources postulated to exist but yet to be discovered) remain mostly unexploited. Australia is
often referred to by economists as the "world's farm", but despite this emphasis on the agriculture sector, in recent years the
Australian government has been focusing on the tourism, education and technology markets.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of
Australia
The Indigenous Australian population, estimated at about
500,000 at the time of European settlement, declined steeply for 150 years but had recovered to 386,049 (including Torres Strait
Islanders, who are of Papuan descent) in 1996. Although comparatively more rural than the general population, the Aboriginal
population is increasingly becoming more urbanised, with some two-thirds living in cities. Over half of the Aboriginal population
reside in both New South Wales and Queensland. In Tasmania the Aboriginal population was virtually wiped out in the 19th
century.
Most of the Australian population descends from 19th and 20th century immigrants, most from the UK and Ireland to begin with, but from other sources in
later years. Although the Australian colonies were founded as a penal
colonies (except for South Australia and Western Australia - with the latter later receiving convicts), the
transportation of British convicts to Australian colonies was gradually phased out between 1840 and 1868. During the "gold
rush" of the late 19th century, the convicts and their descendants were
rapidly overshadowed by hundreds of thousands of free settlers from many different
countries: for example, in the 1850s about two per cent of the combined populations of Britain and Ireland emigrated to New South
Wales and Victoria.
Australia's population has more than doubled since the end of World War II, spurred by an ambitious postwar immigration
program. In the 19th century, Australia enacted strong measures to prevent immigration by nonwhites. After World War II,
immigration from Greece, Turkey, Italy, and other countries increased Australia's cultural diversity. In 1973, Australia
officially ended discriminatory immigration policies,
and substantial Asian immigration followed. By 1988 about 40% of immigration to Australia was from Asia, and by 1997 Asians
constituted about 5% of the population. The indigenous population, the Australian Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, make up 2.2% of the population, according to the 2001 Census. In 2001, the political
campaign was dominated by issues of immigration and national security and there still remains substantial anxiety among
Australians concerning immigration.
In common with many other developed countries, Australia is currently experiencing a demographic shift towards an older
population, with more people retiring and fewer people of working age. Similarly, a large number of Australian citizens (950,000
as of 2004) live outside of their home country. This number (almost 5%) represents a higher per capita percentage of overseas
residents than many other countries including the United States. This phenomenon was, until recently, given little attention by
the Australian government and media, but the term Australian Diaspora has now joined the Australian vocabulary.
Because of the aging population, Australia maintains one of the
most active immigration programs in the world, absorbing tens of thousands of immigrants from all over the world every year. Most
permanent resident visas are granted on the basis of professional skills or family associations.
New Zealanders are granted Special Category Visas on arrival in
Australia, which allow them to remain in Australia to live or work indefinitely. However, New Zealand citizens are excluded from
government subsidised tertiary education or other advantages
granted to Australian citizens and permanent residents. New rules in 2001 divided New Zealanders living in Australia into two categories: those who were resident in
Australia before 2001, and those who arrived in Australia after 2001. Those who were resident before 2001 may claim unemployment
benefits after two years residence, as is the norm for permanent residents of other nationalities. New Zealanders who have
arrived in Australia after 2001 are not entitled to any unemployment benefits at all, as is the norm for people living in Australia only on work permits.
English is the main official and spoken language in Australia, although some of the surviving Aboriginal communities maintain
their native languages. A considerable number of first and sometimes second-generation migrants are bilingual; languages such as
Italian, Cantonese and Greek are spoken in many communities.
The Australian Constitution guarantees the separation of church and state; there is no
state religion in Australia. Although the nation is broadly secular and
few are church-goers, three-quarters of Australians are nominally Christian, mostly Catholic or Anglican. A
diverse range of other religions are practised.
Although education is not a federal concern, government grants have aided in the establishment of numerous state universities
including the University of Sydney (1850), the University of Melbourne (1853), the University of Adelaide (1874), the University of Tasmania (in Hobart, 1890), the University of Queensland (in Brisbane, 1909), and the
University of Western Australia (in
Perth, 1911).
Culture
Main article: Culture of Australia
Much of Australia's culture is derived from European and more recently American roots, but distinctive Australian features
have evolved from the environment, aboriginal culture, and
the influence of Australia's neighbours. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia—films, opera, music, painting,
theater, dance, and crafts—are achieving international recognition.
Australia has had a significant school of painting since the early days of
European settlement, and Australians with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, and Arthur Boyd—not to mention the prized work of many Aboriginal artists. There
are excellent art galleries (even in surprisingly small towns); a rich
tradition in ballet, enlivened by the legacy of Dame Margot Fonteyn and
Sir Robert Helpmann; a strong national opera company, Opera Australia, made prominent by the world renowned diva Dame Joan Sutherland; and symphony orchestras in all capital cities, in
particular the Melbourne and Sydney symphony orchestras. In ths field, conductor Sir Charles Mackerras
has achieved international renown.
Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas
Keneally, Les Murray, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker
Conway, Booker Prize winners D.B.C. Pierre and Peter Carey and Nobel Prize winner Patrick
White. In the popular music sphere Australian bands and musicians
have had considerable international success. Some notable examples include the 1960s
successes of The Easybeats and the folk-pop group The Seekers, through the heavy rock of AC/DC,
the disco of the English-born Bee Gees, the slick pop of INXS and more recently Silverchair and Savage Garden. In the new millennium, garage rock bands Jet and The
Vines have achieved popular success locally and in the United States
and the United Kingdom, with the work of both featuring prominently in
films and advertising.
Media
Main article: Media in Australia
Australia has a highly concentrated ownership of media companies. Newspapers
are dominated by two companies, News Corporation and John Fairfax Holdings. News Corporation publishes the only daily
national newspaper, The Australian, as well as a daily newspaper
in every capital city except Perth. Its holdings include The Daily Telegraph (Sydney), Herald
Sun (Melbourne), The Courier-Mail (Brisbane) and
The Advertiser (Adelaide). News Corporation was
founded in Adelaide and its first newspaper was The News which was later merged with The Advertiser. John
Fairfax Holdings owns The Sydney Morning
Herald, The Age (Melbourne) and the most prominent financial
newspaper, The Australian Financial
Review. Rural and regional media is dominated by Rural Press Limited, with significant holdings in all States and Territories. Titles
include The Canberra Times as well as The Land (New South Wales), Queensland Country
Life, Stock and
Land (Victoria), Stock
Journal (South Australia) and Farm Weekly (Western Australia). Rural Press also has significant holdings in New Zealand and the United
States.
Australia has three major commercial television networks,
the Nine Network, Seven
Network and the Ten Network. It also has two public broadcasters, the
Australian Broadcasting
Corporation (ABC and colloquially Channel 2) and the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS).
According to Reporters Without Borders in
2004, Australia is in 41st position on a list of countries ranked by Press Freedom; well behind New Zealand (9th) and United Kingdom (28th).
With the Howard government taking control of the Senate in mid-2005 after the 2004 election, media ownership regulations are
likely to be relaxed so as to allow the further concentration of media ownership in the hands of a couple of entities.
Related topics
Main article: List of
Australia-related topics
International rankings
External links
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