- This article considers Catholicism in the broadest ecclesiastical sense. See Catholicism (disambiguation) for alternative
meanings
Catholicism has two main ecclesiastical meanings, described
in Webster's Dictionary as: a) "the whole orthodox
christian church, or adherence thereto;" and b) "the doctrines or faith of the Roman Catholic church, or adherence thereto." 1 The term comes from the Greek adjective
καθολικος (katholikos), meaning "general" or "universal", the feminine form of which
is καθολικη.
"One, holy, catholic, and apostolic"
Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch was the first to use the term
"catholic church," referring to all Christians, in a letter to Christians in Smyrna, in about AD 107.
The word Catholic has been used ever since to describe the one, original church of Christ founded by Christ and the
Apostles, and appears in the main Christian creeds (formal definitions of belief), notably the Apostles'
Creed and the Nicene Creed. As such, many Christians claim entitlement
to the designation "catholic". These fall into two groups: 1.) those like the Roman Catholic, Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, and the Ancient, Old, Liberal, and Anglican Catholic
churches that claim Apostolic Succession from the early
church; and 2.) those who believe that they are spiritual descendants of the Apostles neither retaining nor desiring organisational descent from the historic church. In general the term
"catholic" is used more often by members of the first group to describe themselves. Members of the second group would not
normally refer to themselves as catholics, even though they would insist that they remain somehow part of one invisible
"catholic" church.
Christians of most denominations, including most Protestants, affirm
their faith in "One Holy
Catholic and Apostolic Church." For Protestants, most of whom consider themselves to be spiritual descendents (category 2,
above), this affirmation refers to their belief in the ultimate unity of all churches under one God and one Saviour, rather than in one visibly unified church, i.e.
the ideal meaning given above. In this usage catholic is usually written with a lower-case "c". The Nicene Creed, or the Apostles Creed, stating "I believe in...the holy catholic church..." is thus recited in Protestant worship services. 4.
Evolution of the term "Catholicism"
There are thus several claimants to the title, Catholic Church, especially in the English language. The claimants have in common an assertion that they represent the ancient
undivided Christian faith, while
they differ on the practical meaning of "unity" within that faith.
Over the centuries, there arose within the Christian faith disputes about the truths of the faith, and vocabulary evolved to
reflect divergent viewpoints. "Catholic" and "Orthodox" are examples of such terms, each with a basic meaning, universal
and correct-doctrine respectively, and each with a connotation in speech: "Catholic" generally refers to the branch of the
Christian faith that accepts the leadership of the Pope, while "Orthodox" is used to refer
to the Churches came to a parting of the ways with the Roman Church in the East-West Schism shortly after the first millennium, in communion with each other, but not accepting Roman
Primacy. After the Protestant Reformation, the newly-formed ecclesial
communities in some cases applied the term "Catholic" in an ideal sense, referencing the original Christian faith. 3 For comparisons and contrasts, see Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Greek Orthodox
Church, Christian Denominations, and
Protestantism.
Brief organizational history of the Christian Church
The early Christian church came to be organized under five patriarchs, the
bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch,
Alexandria, Constantinople and Rome. The Bishop of Rome was recognized by all the Patriarchs as "the Vicar of Christ," "the Servant of the Servants
of God," and "the Head of the Church," with doctrinal or procedural disputes often referred to Rome for an opinion. When the
Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, papal influence was often challenged. While Rome claimed special authority descending
from St. Peter2 and St. Paul, who, all agreed, were martyred and
buried in Rome, Constantinople had become the residence of the Emperor and
the Senate, and the churches at Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria were all
older than Rome. Antioch furthermore was considered to have been the see of St.
Peter, before he went to Rome.
The first great rupture in the Church followed the Council of
Ephesus (AD 431), which affirmed the status of the Virgin Mary as Theotokos. The majority of those who refused to accept this Council were Persian Christians, a Church now known as the Assyrian Church of the East. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451).
This Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism. The terms adopted by
this Council were unacceptable to many Christians who preferred to use a Christology formulated primarily in Alexandria. These
Christians are now often referred to in English as the Oriental Orthodox Communion ("Eastern" and "Oriental" are not necessarily synonymous in English). The
next major rift within Catholicism was in the 11th century. Doctrinal
disputes, including those represented in the filioque clause,
conflicts between methods of Church government, and perhaps the evolution of separate rites and practices, precipitated a split
in AD 1054 that divided the Catholic Church once again, this time between a "West" and an
"East". England, France, the Holy Roman Empire, Scandinavia, and much of the rest of Western Europe were in the
Western camp, and Greece, Russia and many of
other Slavic lands, Anatolia, and the Christians in Syria and Egypt who accepted the Council of Chalcedon made up the eastern
camp. This division is called the East-West Schism. The most recent
major split within the Catholic Church occurred in the 16th century with
the Protestant Reformation, after which many Protestant denominations emerged and the Anglican Church was established.
All of the preceding groups, excepting non-Anglican Protestants, consider themselves to be fully and completely Catholic. Each
of them, excepting the Anglicans, considers itself not only to be completely Catholic but to be exclusively Catholic, even
if a different group happens to use the term "Catholic" in its name. In short, no less than five major Christian traditions
currently have a claim to being "the Catholic Church", and each defends the validity of the claim on the basis of uniquely-held
doctrines that do not completely agree with the doctrines of the other four. An exception is the Roman Catholic Church’s
view of the Churches estranged in the East-West Schism, a rupture it sees as involving only a break of ecclesiastical communion
(schism in the strict sense), while in the others heretical doctrines played a part.
The Roman Catholic Church
The largest by far of all groups that call themselves Catholic is the Roman Catholic Church. ("Roman Catholic" as a
name for this Church is a misnomer in the opinion of those who, unlike the Church
itself, apply the term instead to its Latin-rite component.) As indicated
above, the term “Catholic” is often employed as synonymous with “Roman Catholic”. The word "Roman" is
used in reference to the centrality for this Church of the Bishop of Rome, with whom Roman Catholics are by definition in
full communion, as part either of the majority Latin (Western) Church
or of her 20 smaller Eastern Churches, accepting his "full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church" (Catechism of the Catholic Church,
882[1] (http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#).)
For further information, see Roman Catholic
Church.
Other Catholic groups
In Western Christianity the principal groups that regard themselves as "Catholic" without full communion with the Pope are the Ancient Catholic Church, the Old
Catholic Church, the Liberal Catholic Church, the
Chinese Patriotic Catholic
Association, similar groups among Filipinos and Poles, and some elements of Anglicanism ("High Church Anglicans" or "Anglo-Catholics"). These groups hold spiritual beliefs and practice religious rituals similar to those of
Roman Catholics of the Latin Rite from which they emerged, but reject the
Pope's claimed status and authority. Some Traditional Catholic groups are in a similar position. The Liberal Catholic Church, founded when Charles W. Leadbeater, formerly a clergyman in the Church of England, and later one of the heads
of the Theosophical Society, was ordained as a bishop in
the Old Catholic Church, additionally incorporates significant elements of theosophy into its doctrinal faith.
The Anglican Communion is in practice divided into two
wings, "High Church Anglicans" also called the Anglo-Catholics
and "Low Church Anglicans" also known as the Evangelical wing. Though all
elements within the Anglican Communion recite the same creeds, Low Church Anglicans regard the word Catholic in the ideal
sense given above, while High Church Anglicans treat it as a name of Christ's church which they consider to embrace themselves
together with the Roman Catholic and several Orthodox Churches.
Anglo-Catholicism maintains similarities to the Latin Rite of Roman Catholicism and related spirituality, including a belief
in seven sacraments, Transubstantiation as opposed to Consubstantiation, devotion to the Virgin Mary and saints, the description of their ordained clergy as
"priests" — addressed as "Father" — the wearing of vestments in church liturgy, sometimes even the description of
their Eucharistic celebrations as "Mass". The development of the Anglo-Catholic
wing of Anglicanism occurred largely in the nineteenth century
and is strongly associated with the Oxford Movement. Two of its
leading lights, John Henry Newman and Henry Edward Manning, both ordained Anglican clergymen, ended up
joining the Roman Catholic Church, becoming cardinals.
The several churches of Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy each consider themselves to be the universal and
true Catholic Church, and typically regard the other of these families and the Western Catholics as heretical and as having left
the One Holy Catholic, and Apostolic Church. The patriarchs of these Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches are autocephalous
hierarchs, which roughly means that each of them is independent of the direct oversight
of another bishop (although still subject, according to their distinct traditions, either to the synod of bishops of each one’s jurisdiction, or only to a common decision of the patriarchs of their own
communion). They are willing to concede a primacy of honor to the Bishop of Rome, but not to accept monarchical claims.
Distinctive beliefs and practices (i.e., Catholicism)
Beliefs
Most of the Catholic Churches share certain essential distinctive beliefs and practices. The Anglicans differ among themselves
on these matters:
- Direct and continuous organisational descent from the original church founded by Jesus (see e.g. Mt 16:18 (http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&bk=47&ch=016&l=18)).
- Possession of the "threefold ordained ministry" of Bishops, Priests and Deacons.
- All ministers are ordained by, and subject to, Bishops, who pass down sacramental authority by the "laying-on of hands",
having themselves been ordained in a direct line of succession from the Apostles (see Apostolic Succession).
- Their belief that the Church, not any one book, is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and the
Apostles. This teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in written and
oral church tradition. Neither is independent of the other.
- A belief in the necessity of sacraments (although not necessarily seven in
number).
- The use of images, candles, vestments and music in worship.
- The making of the Sign of the Cross in a variety of
contexts.
- Belief that the bread and wine of the eucharist really are Jesus's body,
blood, soul, and divinity--not just "symbols."
- Veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus as the Blessed Virgin Mary or Theotokos, and veneration of the
saints.
- A distinction among worship (latria) for God, and veneration
(dulia) for saints, with the term hyperdulia used for a special veneration accorded to the Virgin Mary among Roman
Catholics. This "hyperdulia" is not universal to all Catholics.
- The usefulness of prayer on behalf of the dead.
- Salvation through faith lived out
through good works, rather than by faith alone.
Sacraments
Traditional Western Catholic practice consists of seven sacraments (see also
Catholic sacraments). Among Catholics of Eastern traditions
(especially the Orthodox), there is no fixed number, although all of the following are considered sacraments:
In Catholic teaching, sacraments are gifts of Christ, performed through the office of the Church, that impart sanctifying
grace to the receiver. Briefly: Baptism is given to infants and to
adult converts who have not previously been validly baptised; the baptism of most Christian denominations is accepted as valid by
most Catholic Churches since the effect is produced through the sacrament and is not dependent on the faith (or lack of faith) of
the minister intending to administer the sacrament (Western doctrine) or the Church is empowered to fill the empty ritual with
Grace without having to repeat that ritual (Eastern doctrine). In the sacrament of Confirmation, the gift of the Holy
Spirit conferred in baptism is "strengthened and deepened" (see Catechism of the Catholic Church §1303 (http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a2.htm)) by the laying on of
hands and anointing with oil. In the Latin rite of the majority Roman Catholic Church, this sacrament is most often administered
by a bishop, but in certain circumstances is administered instead by a priest using oil blessed by the bishop. In the West,
administration used to be postponed until the recipient’s early adulthood, but in view of the earlier age at which children
are now admitted to reception of the Eucharist, it is more and more restored to the traditional order and administered before
Holy Communion is given. In the East the sacrament is called Chrismation, and
is ordinarily administered immediately after baptism by a priest using oil blessed by the bishop. Eucharist (Communion),
is a partaking in the sacrifice of Christ, marked by sharing the Body and Blood of Christ, which are believed to replace the
bread and wine used in the ceremony. The Roman Catholic belief that the bread and wine are transformed in all but appearance into
the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ is known as transubstantiation. Confession or reconciliation involves admitting sins to a priest (in
Latin-Church and appendant doctrine) or admitting them to Christ in the presence of a priest (in Orthodox doctrine). In Roman
Catholic practice, the priest imposes a “penance”, an action or spiritual exercise for the penitent to perform, not
to obtain absolution from sin, but to make some reparation and recover spiritual health (see Catechism of the Catholic Church
§1459 (http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a2.htm)); under Orthodox
doctrine too, one might be given a task to perform, not to "show repentance" or "achieve absolution", but as an ascetic
"prescription" or an "exercise" to help strengthen oneself against further temptation. Anointing of the Sick involves the
anointing of a sick person with oil blessed specifically for that purpose. In the Roman Catholic Church it is administered to
those who are “seriously sick”; when “seriously sick” was taken to mean “in danger of death”,
among the Roman Catholics the sacrament was known as "extreme
unction", part of "the last rites", but it was never so limited among the Orthodox. Holy Orders is entry into the
clergy in the three degrees of deacon, priest, and bishop.
The study of Catholicism
Catholicism is a religion, and is studied in contexts that include
theology and philosophy.
Footnotes
- 1 Webster's College Dictionary, 1991.
- 2 St Peter is sometimes called “the first pope”. However, if “pope” is defined as
“successor of St Peter”, St. Linus is the first pope. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the college of the bishops has
succeeded, in the Church, to the group of the apostles, not that the bishops are apostles; and that, among the bishops, primacy
belongs to the Bishop of Rome, as primacy among the apostles belonged to St Peter, not that the pope is on the same level as the
Apostle Peter (‘’Catechism of the Catholic
Church,’‘ (http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm)
880-881).
- 3 Oxford English Dictionary, Oed.com: see "catholic", In ecclesiastical use (§2).
- 4 Methodist example (http://www.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=258&GID=238&GMOD=VWD&GCAT=N)
References
Additional reading
- Catechism of the Catholic Church - English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [2] (http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm)
- H. W. Crocker III, Triumph - The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History (Prima Publishing,
2001). ISBN 0761529241
- Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656
- K. O. Johnson, Why Do Catholics Do That? (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266
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