Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (November 22, 1890 - November 9, 1970), in France commonly referred to as général de Gaulle,
was a French military leader and politician. Prior to World War II, he was mostly known as a tactician of tank battles and an advocate of the concentrated use of armored and aviation forces. He was the
leader of the Free French Forces in World War II and head of
the provisional government in 1944–1946. Called
to form a government in 1958, he inspired a new constitution1 and was the
Fifth Republic's first president from 1958 to 1969. His
political ideology is known as Gaullism, which left a major influence in subsequent French politics.
1890–1912: Formative years
De Gaulle was the third child of a morally conservative but socially progressive Catholic bourgeois family. On his father's side was
an old aristocratic family from Normandy and Burgundy who had settled in Paris for a century already, whereas on his mother's side was a family of rich
entrepreneurs from the industrial region of Lille in French Flanders. Born in Lille, de Gaulle grew up and was
educated in Paris.
De Gaulle's family was intellectual. His grandfather was an historian, his grandmother a writer, and his father a professor in
private Catholic schools who founded his own private school. Political debates were frequent at home, and from an early age, de
Gaulle was introduced by his father to the major conservative authors. The
family was very patriotic and he was raised in the cult of the Nation (De Gaulle wrote
in his memoirs that "my mother felt an uncompromising passion for the fatherland, equal to her religious piety"). Although
traditionalist and monarchist, the family was legalist and respected the
institutions of the French Republic. Their social ideas were also more liberal,
influenced by social
Catholicism. During the Dreyfus affair the family distanced itself
from the more conservative natonalist circles and supported Dreyfus.
1912–1940: Military career
Young Charles de Gaulle chose a military career and spent four years at the École Spéciale Militaire de
Saint-Cyr (the French equivalent of West Point). He graduated in 1912 and joined the infantry. During World War I, then captain de Gaulle was
severely wounded at the gruesome Battle of Verdun in March 1916,
and left for dead on the battlefield. Alive, he was taken prisoner by the Germans. He made five unsuccessful escape attempts, and
was put in solitary confinement in a retaliation camp.
When the war ended, he remained in the military, serving on the staff of Gen. Maxime Weygand and then Gen. Philippe Pétain.
During the Polish-Soviet war in 1919-1920, he volunteered to be a member of the French Military Mission to Poland and was
an infantry instructor with the Polish army. He fought and distinguished himself in
fighting near the river Zbrucz and received
the highest Polish military award, Virtuti Militari. He was
promoted to major and offered possibility of a further career in Poland, but chose
instead to return to France. He was heavily influenced by that war, namely by the use of tanks, fast manoeuvres and lack of
trenches.
Based partially on his observations during war in Poland, which was so different from experiences from WWI, he published a
number of books and articles on the reorganisation of the army, particularly Vers l'Armée de Métier (published in English
as "The Army of the Future") in which he supported the new ideas of mechanised troops and specialised armoured divisions in
preference to the static theories exemplified by the Maginot Line.
While Heinz Guderian and the German Army General Staff were
influenced by de Gaulle, Pétain rejected most of de Gaulle's theories, and the relationship between them became strained. French
politicians also dismissed de Gaulle's theories with the notable exception of Paul Reynaud who would later play a major role in de Gaulle's career.
At the outbreak of World War II, de Gaulle was only a colonel, having encountered
hostility from the leaders of the military through the 1920s and 1930s due to his bold views. After the German breakthrough at Sedan on May 10, 1940, he was finally given command of the 4th Armoured Division.
On May 17, 1940, de Gaulle attacked the
German tank forces at Montcornet. With only 200 French tanks and no
air support, the offensive had little impact on stopping the German advance. There was more success on May 28, when de Gaulle's tanks forced the German armour to retreat at Caumont. He became the first and only French commanding officer to force the Germans to retreat during the invasion
of France. Prime Minister Paul Reynaud promoted him provisional brigadier general (thus his title of général de Gaulle).
On June 6, Paul Reynaud appointed him undersecretary of state for national defence
and war and put him in charge of coordination with the United Kingdom.
As a member of the cabinet he resisted proposals to surrender. He served as a liaison with the British government, and with
Churchill carved a project of union between France and the United Kingdom on the
morning of June 16 in London. This was a last minute effort to try to strengthen the
resolve of those members of the French government who were in favor of continuing the war. He took the plane back to Bordeaux (provisory seat of the French government) on that same afternoon, but when landing
in Bordeaux in the evening he learned that Pétain had become premier with the intention of seeking an armistice with Germany.
That same day he took the most important decision in his life, and also in the modern history of France: he would refuse the
humiliation of a French surrender, he would rebel against the legal (but illegitimate in his eyes) government of Pétain, he would
return to London and call for the continuation of war. On the morning of June 17, with 100,000 gold francs from the secret funds
given to him the previous night by Paul Reynaud, he fled Bordeaux by plane, narrowly escaped German aviation, and landed in
London that same afternoon. De Gaulle decided to reject French capitulation and to set about building a movement which would
appeal to overseas French opponents of a separate arrangement with Germany.
1940–1945: The Free French Forces
On June 18, de Gaulle prepared to speak to the French people, via BBC radio, from London. The British Cabinet attempted to block the speech, but was overruled by Churchill. In France, de Gaulle's "Appeal of June 18" could be heard nationwide in the evening. "France has
lost a battle but has not lost the war" was its most famous line. Although only few people actually heard the speech that night
(BBC was seldom listened to on the continent, and millions of Frenchmen were refugees on the road), excerpts of the speech
appeared in French newspapers the next day in the yet unoccupied southern part of France, and the speech was repeated for several
days on the BBC. Soon enough, among the chaos and bewilderment that was France in June 1940, the news that a French general was
in London refusing the tide of events and calling for the end of despair and the continuation of a winnable war was spread from
mouths to mouths. To this day it remains one of the most famous speeches in French history.
From London, de Gaulle formed and led the Free French movement. Whereas
the USA continued to recognise Vichy France, the British government of Winston
Churchill supported de Gaulle, initially maintaining relations with Vichy but subsequently recognising the Free French.
On July 4, 1940, a court-martial in Toulouse sentenced
de Gaulle in absentia to four years in prison. At a second court-martial on August 2, 1940, de Gaulle was condemned to death for treason.
In his dealings with his British allies and the United States, de
Gaulle insisted at all times in retaining full freedom of action on behalf of France, even where this might embarrass or
inconvenience his partners in the war. "France has no friends, only interests" is one of his best-remembered statements.
Churchill once commented, regarding working with de Gaulle, that: "Of all the crosses I have had to bear during this war, the
heaviest has been the Cross of Lorraine (de Gaulle's symbol of
Free France)".
Working with the French resistance and supporters in France's
colonial possessions in Africa, after the Anglo-American invasion of
North Africa in November 1942, de Gaulle moved his headquarters to Algiers in May 1943. He became first joint head (with
the less resolutely independent Gen. Henri Giraud, the candidate preferred
by the United States) and then sole chairman of the Committee of National Liberation.
At the liberation of France following Operation Overlord, in which Free French forces played a minor but symbolic role, he quickly established
the authority of the Free French Forces in France, avoiding an
Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories in France. On his
return to Paris, he moved back into his office at the War Ministry, thus proclaiming continuity of the Third Republic and denying the legitimacy of Vichy France.
After the war he served as the President of the provisional government from September 1944 but resigned on January 20, 1946, complaining of conflict between the political parties, and disapproving of the draft constitution for the
Fourth Republic which he believed placed too much power
in the hands of parliament with its shifting party alliances.
1946–1958: The desert crossing
De Gaulle's opposition to the proposed constitution failed as the parties of the left supported a weak presidency to prevent
any repetition of the Vichy regime. The second draft constitution narrowly approved at the referendum of October 1946 was even
less to de Gaulle's liking than the first.
In April 1947 de Gaulle made a renewed attempt at transforming the political scene with
the creation of the Rassemblement
du Peuple Français (Rally of the French People, or RPF), but the movement lost impetus after initial success. In May
1953 he withdrew again from active politics, though the RPF lingered until September
1955.
He retired to Colombey-les-deux-Églises and
wrote his war memoirs, Mémoires de guerre. During this period of formal retirement, de Gaulle however maintained regular
contact with past political lieutenants from wartime and RPF days, including sympathisers involved in political developments in
Algeria.
1958: The collapse of the Fourth Republic
The Fourth Republic was tainted by political instability, its failures in Indochina and its inability to resolve the Algerian question.
On May 13, 1958, the settlers seized the
government buildings in Algiers, attacking what they saw as French government
weakness in the face of demands among the Arab majority for Algerian independence. A "Committee of Civil and Army Public
Security" was created under the presidency of General Jacques Massu, a
Gaullist sympathiser. General Raoul Salan, Commander-in-Chief in Algeria,
announced on radio that the Army had "provisionally taken over responsibility for the destiny of French Algeria."
Under the pressure of Massu, Salan declared "Vive de Gaulle!" from the balcony of the Algiers Government-General building on
May 15. De Gaulle answered two days later that he was ready to "take on the powers of the Republic" (assumer les pouvoirs de
la République). Many worried as they saw this answer as support to the army.
On May 19 de Gaulle asserted again (at a press conference) that he was at the
disposition of the country. As a journalist expressed the concerns of some who feared that he would violate civil liberties, de
Gaulle retorted vehemently: "Have I ever done that? Quite the opposite, I have reestablished them when they had disappeared. Who
honestly believes that, at age 67, I would start a career as a dictator?" A republican by conviction, de Gaulle maintained
throughout the crisis that he would accept power only from the lawfully constituted authorities of the state.
The crisis deepened as French paratroops from Algeria seized Corsica and a landing
near Paris was discussed. Political leaders on all sides agreed to support the General's return to power, except François Mitterrand, and the Communist Party (which denounced de Gaulle as the agent
of a fascist coup). On May 29 the French President, René Coty, appealed to the
"most illustrious of Frenchmen" to become the last President of the Council (Prime Minister) of the Fourth Republic.
De Gaulle remained intent on replacing the constitution of the Fourth Republic, which he blamed for France's political
weakness. He set as a condition for his return that he be given wide emergency powers for six months and that a new
constitution1 be proposed to the French people. On June 1, 1958 de Gaulle became premier and was given emergency powers for 6 months by the National Assembly.
On September 28, 1958, a referendum took place and 79.2% of those who voted supported the new constitution and
the creation of the Fifth Republic. The colonies (Algeria was officially a part of France, not a colony) were given the choice between immediate independence and the new constitution. All colonies voted for the new constitution
except Guinea, which thus became the first French African colony to gain independence,
at the cost of the immediate ending of all French assistance.
In the November 1958 elections de Gaulle and his supporters (initially organised in the Union pour la Nouvelle
République-Union Démocratique du Travail, then the Union des Démocrates pour la Vème République and later still the
Union des
Démocrates pour la République) won a comfortable majority, in December de Gaulle was elected President by the parliament
with 78% of the vote, he was inaugurated in January 1959.
He oversaw tough economic measures to revitalise the country, including the issuing of a new franc (worth 100 old francs). Internationally he rebuffed both the United States and the Soviet Union, pushing for an
independent France with its own nuclear weapons. He set about building
Franco-German coooperation as the cornerstone of the EEC (now the European Union), giving the first state visit to Germany by a French head of state since
Napoleon. He also took the opportunity to deny the British entry to the EEC for the
first time (January 1963), citing his belief that the United Kingdom would not accept the
rules of the Community, and would prefer its oversea alliances (the United States and the British Commonwealth) to its European partners, French ties to its own former empire
notwithstanding.
Although his supporters would argue that subsequent British ambivalence toward the EU justified his fears, many Britons took
De Gaulle's "non" as a deep insult. British commentators have suggested that Britain's later lack of enthusiasm for the EU was
due precisely to it being a project to which Britain was not invited during its formative years. As a result of De Gaulle's snub,
it is asserted, instead of genuinely embracing all European democracies, the EU became a platform tailor-made for French
ambitions but serving British needs poorly. (See Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom.).
De Gaulle believed that while the war in Algeria was militarily winnable it was not defensible internationally, and he became
reconciled to the country's independence. This stance created huge anger among the French settlers and their metropolitan
supporters, and de Gaulle was forced to suppress two uprisings in Algeria by French settlers and troops, in the second of which
(April 1961) France herself faced threatened invasion by rebel paratroops. He was also
targeted by the settler OAS
terrorist group and several assassinations attempts were made on him; the most famous is that of 22 August 1962, when he and his wife narrowly escaped an assassination attempt when their Citroën DS was targeted by machine gun fire arranged by
Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry at the Petit-Clamart. [[ In March 1962 de Gaulle arranged a
cease-fire in Algeria and a referendum supported independence, finally accomplished on July
3.
In September 1962 he sought a constitutional amendment to allow the president to be directly elected by the people. Following
a defeat in the National Assembly, he dissolved that body and held new elections, the Gaullists won an increased majority.
Although the Algerian issue was settled the prime minister, Michel Debré,
still resigned over the final settlement and was replaced with Georges
Pompidou.
1962–1968 Politics of grandeur
With the Algerian conflict behind, de Gaulle was able to achieve his two main objectives: To reform and develop the French
economy, and to promote an independent foreign policy and a strong stance of France on the international stage. This was the
so-called "politics of grandeur" (politique de grandeur).
In the context of a population boom unseen in France since the 18th century, the government under prime minister Georges Pompidou oversaw a rapid transformation and expansion of the French
economy. With dirigisme — a unique combination of capitalism and
state-directed economy — the government intervened heavily in the economy, using indicative five-year plans as its main tool. Great prestige projects, not always financially successful, were
launched such as the extension of Marseilles harbor (soon becoming number three
in Europe and number one in the Mediterranean), the promotion of
the Caravelle plane (a predecessor of Airbus), the decision to start building the Franco-British Concorde
plane in Toulouse, the expansion of the French car industry with state-owned
Renault at its center, and the building of the first motorways between Paris and the
provinces, the French economy recorded growth rates not accounted for since the 19th century. In 1964, for the first time in 200
years, France's GDP overtook that of the UK,
a position it held until the UK's GDP again surpassed France's in the 1990s. This period is still remembered in France with some nostalgia as the peak of the Trente Glorieuses ("Thirty
Glorious Years" of economic growth between 1945-1975).
This strong economic foundation enabled de Gaulle to implement his independent foreign policy. In 1960, France became the
fourth state to acquire a nuclear arsenal, having successfully detonated an atomic bomb in the Algerian desert. In 1968, at the
insistence of de Gaulle, French scientists finally succeeded in detonating a hydrogen bomb, without any American assistance. In
what was regarded as a snub to Britain, De Gaulle declared France was the third big independent nuclear power, as Britain's
nuclear force was closely coordinated with that of the United States (though critics countered that this "independence" was an
illusory luxury France could afford only by being under the protection of the U.S. nuclear umbrella). While grandeur was surely
an essential motive in these nuclear developments, another was the concern that the U.S., involved in an unpopular and costly war
in Vietnam, would hesitate to intervene in Europe should the Soviet Union decide to
invade. In 1965 France launched its first satellite into orbit, being the third country in the world to build a complete delivery
system do so after the Soviet Union and the United States.
De Gaulle was convinced that a strong France could act as a balancing force in the rivalry between the US and the Soviet
Union, a policy seen as little more than posturing and opportunism by his critics, particularly in Britain and the U.S., to which
France was formally allied. In January 1964, he officially recognized the People's Republic of China, despite US opposition. It should be noted that he was only coming to
the same conclusion that would lead to the spectacular trip of U.S. President Nixon to China eight years later. Indeed, Nixon's first foreign visit after his election was to de Gaulle in
1969. They both shared the same non-Wilsonian approach to world affairs,
believing in nations and their relative strengths, rather than in ideologies, international organizations, or multilateral
agreements. De Gaulle is famously quoted for nicknaming the United
Nations le Machin ("the thing").
In December 1965, de Gaulle was returned as president for a second seven-year term, but
for the first time had to go through a second round of voting in which he defeated François Mitterrand. In February 1966, France withdrew from the
common NATO military command, but remained within the organization. De Gaulle, haunted by
the memories of 1940, wanted France to remain the master of the decisions affecting it, unlike in the 1930s, when France had to
follow in step with the British ally. Again, though, the move was seen as further evidence of de Gaulle's hypocrisy; critics
charged he was content for France to be protected by NATO, while publicly snubbing the alliance. In September 1966, in a famous speech in Phnom Penh (Cambodia), he expressed France's disapproval of the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War; again, preceding Nixon by seven years, he called for a U.S. withdrawal
from Vietnam as the only way to ensure peace. As the Vietnam War had its roots in French colonialism in southeast Asia, this
speech did little to endear de Gaulle to the Americans, even if they later drew the same conclusion.
In June 1967, he condemned the Israelis over their occupation of the West
Bank and Gaza following the Six Days
War. This was a major change in French policy towards Israel. Until then, France had been a staunch ally of Israel, helping
Israel militarily and jointly plotting the Suez Campaign in 1956. Under
de Gaulle, following the independence of Algeria, France embarked on foreign policies more favorable to the Arab side, still a
distinct aspect of French foreign policy today. Israel's leadership, stung by what it considered its capricious abandonment in
the face of de Gaulle's desire to appease the Arabs, then turned towards the United States for military support.
In July 1967, de Gaulle visited Canada, celebrating the centennial of its existence
as a nation with a World's Fair known officially as Expo '67. On July 24th, during a speech made from a balcony on Montreal city hall, to a large crowd gathered below De Gaulle uttered Vive le Quebec then added,
Vive le Québec libre ("Long Live Free Québec").
Harshly critized by English-speaking Canadians and the Canadian government for this unprecedented breach of diplomatic protocol,
it was seen by many Canadians as an insult to the thousands of Canadian soldiers who twice fought and died for the freedom of
France. De Gaulle's stance was nonetheless welcomed by a part of the Quebec population that favor that province's sovereignty.
Outraged, the Government of Canada under Prime Minister Lester Pearson,
a soldier who served in World War I and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, cancelled the remainder of De Gaulle's tour and he returned to France
where he was also heavily criticised by a large part of the French media.
In December 1967, in the name of France he again rejected British entry into the
EEC. Again, his desire to build an independent Europe led him to consider that Britain, whose
foreign policy was aligned with that of the US since 1940, would only stall the efforts of the other EEC countries if it was
allowed in. Contemporary British politicians expressed the belief that France was less interested in a united Europe than in a
French-dominated Europe. Whatever the merits of de Gaulle's worries about British policy, his "non" was taken as a further
insult to one of France's liberators.
Many have commented that the "policy of grandeur" was probably too ambitious and heavy for the shoulders of France. This
policy, it is argued, was made possible by the exceptional historical figure of de Gaulle, but was not sustainable by
post-imperial France in the long run. In any case, it is still remembered in France as a defining era of French modern foreign
policy, and it still largely inspires French foreign policy today.
May 1968
The huge demonstrations and strikes in France in May 1968 were a big challenge
to de Gaulle's presidency. In the course of the May 1968 events he briefly fled to Baden-Baden and met Massu, now French commander in Germany (to discuss army intervention against the
protesters, according to popular but unofficial accounts).
But de Gaulle offered to accept some of the reforms the demonstrators sought. He again considered a referendum to support his
moves, but Pompidou persuaded him to dissolve parliament (in which the government had all but lost its majority in the March 1967
elections) and hold new elections instead. The June 1968 elections were a major success for the Gaullists and their allies: when
offered the spectre of revolution or even civil war, the majority of the country rallied to him. His party won 358 of 487 seats,
but Pompidou was suddenly replaced by Maurice Couve
de Murville in July.
1969 The retirement
Charles de Gaulle resigned on April 28, 1969 following the defeat of his referendum to transform the Senate (upper house of the French parliament, wielding
less power than the French National Assembly) into
an advisory body while giving extended powers to regional councils. Some said this referendum was a self-conscious political
suicide committed by de Gaulle after the traumatizing events of May 1968. As proven already in 1946, de Gaulle was no man to stay
in power without feeling that the people were following him. He retired once again to Colombey-les-deux-Églises, where he died
suddenly in 1970, while in the middle of writing his memoirs. In perfect health until then, it was reported that as he had
finished watching the evening news on television and was sitting in his armchair he suddenly said "I feel a pain here", pointing
to his neck, just seconds before he fell unconscious due to an aneurysmal rupture. Within minutes he was dead.
Private life
Charles de Gaulle married on April 7, 1921 to Yvonne Vendroux ("Tante Yvonne"). They had 3 children : Philippe (1921),
Elisabeth (1924), and Anne (1928). Anne suffered from Down syndrome and
died at 20.
Retrospect
Though controversial throughout his political career, not least among ideological opponents on the left and among overseas
strategic partners, de Gaulle continues to command enormous respect within France, where his presidency is seen as a return to
political stability and strength on the international stage.
Domestically, for all its flaws, his regime presided over a return to economic prosperity after an initially sluggish postwar
performance, while maintaining much of the social contract evolved in previous decades between employers and labour. The
associated dirigisme (state economic interventionism) of the Fifth Republic's early decades remains at odds with the trend
of western economic orthodoxy, though French living standards remain among the highest in Europe.
De Gaulle's presidential style of government was continued under his successors. Internationally, the emphasis on French
independence which so characterised de Gaulle's policy remains a keynote of foreign policy, together with his alignment with the
former rival Germany, still seen in both countries as a foundation for European integration.
Footnote
1 As he commissioned the new constitution and was responsible for its overall framework, de Gaulle is sometimes
described as the author of the constitution. De Gaulle's political ideas were written into a constitution by Michel Debré who then guided the text through the enactment process. Thus while
the constitution reflects de Gaulle's ideas, Michel Debré was the actual author of the text.
Works
French Editions
- La Discorde Chez l'Ennemi (1924)
- Histoire des Troupes du Levant (1931) Written by Major de Gaulle and Major Yvon, with Staff Colonel de Mierry collaborating
in the preparation of the final text.
- Le Fil de l'Epée (1932)
- Vers l'Armée de Métier (1934)
- La France et son Armée (1938)
- Trois Etudes (1945) (Rôle Historique des Places Fortes; Mobilisation Economique à l'Etranger; Comment Faire une Armée de
Métier) followed by the Memorandum of January 26, 1940.
- Mémoires de Guerre
- Volume I - L'Appel 1940-1942 (1954)
- Volume II - L'Unité, 1942-1944 (1956)
- Volume III - Le Salut, 1944-1946 (1959)
- Mémoires d'Espoir
- Volume I - Le Renouveau 1958-1962 (1970)
- Discours et Messages
- Volume I - Pendant la Guerre 1940-1946 (1970)
- Volume II - Dans l'attente 1946-1958 (1970)
- Volume III - Avec le Renouveau 1958-1962 (1970)
- Volume IV - Pour l'Effort 1962-1965 (1970)
- Volume V - Vers le Terme 1966-1969
English Translations
- The Edge of the Sword (Le Fil de l'Epée). Tr. by Gerard Hopkins. Faber, London, 1960 Criterion Books, New York, 1960
- The Army of the Future. (Vers l'Armée de Métier). Hutchinson, London-Melbourne, 1940. Lippincott, New York, 1940
- France and Her Army. (La France et son Armée). Tr. by F.L. Dash. Hutchinson London, 1945. Ryerson Press, Toronto, 1945
- War Memoirs: Call to Honor, 1940-1942 (L'Appel). Tr. by Jonathan Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press,
New York, 1955.
- War Memoirs: Unity, 1942-1944. (L'Unité). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents).
Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon and Schuster, New York, 1959 (2 volumes).
- War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944-1946. (Le Salut). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine
(documents). Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon and Schuster, New York, 1960 (2 volumes).
Names and terms of address used for de Gaulle
In France, Charles de Gaulle is called or referred to with different names, depending on who is talking, and what are the
feelings of the person talking about de Gaulle, which can be quite confusing. Here is a list of several names and terms of
address used in France.
- Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle: This is the formal full name of de Gaulle, the one used in his birth, marriage,
and death certificates, the one used for official purposes when he was alive, such as for passports or ID cards. This full name
is never used in France nowadays. It does not even appear in French encyclopedias or dictionaries.
- Charles de Gaulle: This is the regular name that de Gaulle used in everyday life, the name that is used in French
encyclopedias and dictionaries, official documents, the name used when French people show a list of all their former presidents,
etc.
- le général de Gaulle: This name originates from the promotion of de Gaulle to provisional brigadier general by Prime Minister Paul Reynaud in May 1940. After his rebellion in June 1940, de Gaulle never returned into the army, and became a political figure, thus never advancing
to higher ranks of general. When he was prime minister or president he always refused to promote himself to higher ranks. Thus,
one of the most famous French generals remained only a two-star general (in France brigadier generals have 2 stars). De Gaulle was very much attached to his military past, and during his
political career he often appeared with his two-star general's uniform, especially during critical moments such as the Putsch of Algiers in 1961. It was quite funny for French people to see a two-star general commending authority over
five-star generals. Indeed, during the Second World War, two-star
general de Gaulle had been scorned by five-star generals who remained faithful to Vichy France. This may explain why de Gaulle remained attached to his two-star status, which was reminding the
days of the Free French during the war.
In France, le général de Gaulle is now the most widely used term to refer to de Gaulle. Most avenues or streets which are
called after de Gaulle use this term (e.g. avenue du général de Gaulle), but there are some exceptions, such as Charles de Gaulle Airport (aéroport de Roissy-Charles
de Gaulle). In left-wing municipalities, when naming streets, Charles de
Gaulle is sometimes preferred over général de Gaulle, a term that has always irked the left, even though it is used
all across the political spectrum nowadays. People who itch at the military, or who want to distance themselves from de Gaulle,
use Charles de Gaulle instead of général de Gaulle. Charles de Gaulle is supposedly more neutral, but
général de Gaulle is now so widely accepted that using Charles de Gaulle in conversation definitely carries a
feeling of distance, or covert criticism. One can guess the feeling of someone toward Gaullism simply by watching whether they use général de Gaulle or Charles de Gaulle.
- le Président de Gaulle was mainly used in formal circumstances when he was president.
- le Général: This is used by people most devoted to de Gaulle, especially people who personally knew him, or worked
under him. This was the term used by the ministers of de Gaulle when they referred to him in private. They would never have said
le président. There is a feeling of partisanship attached to the word, and the left would never use it today. In France,
when the word général is used alone, it is almost always understood as meaning de Gaulle.
- mon général: This was used by ministers of de Gaulle and by his close supporters when addressing de Gaulle. The left
would have used Monsieur le président instead.
- mongénéral: This was, and still is, used by satirical publications such as the Canard Enchaîné to caricature the devotion and, according to those publications, blind obedience
and ideologic conformity that de Gaulle's followers had.
- de Gaulle: This is used nowadays to refer to de Gaulle as an historical character, often with a tone of praise or
respect, such as recent book C'était de Gaulle ("Thus was de Gaulle"). In colloquial conversation, a Frenchman could say:
"De Gaulle, c'était quelqu'un ! " ("De Gaulle, now that was a man!"). In French, calling someone by their family name
alone is considered derogatory when they are alive, but it is considered reverential when they are dead.
- Monsieur Charles de Gaulle or Monsieur de Gaulle: This is never ever used. The last time it was used,
probably, was when de Gaulle was in high school in the 1900s. His professors would have addressed him as Monsieur de
Gaulle in formal circumstances, and as de Gaulle alone in informal circumstances. After high school, de Gaulle entered the
military, and so he was addressed by his military rank at the time, followed by de Gaulle (lieutenant de Gaulle,
etc.)
- le colonel Motor: This is how de Gaulle was called by people in the French military in the 1930s. De Gaulle's
proposals that the French army should emphasize the use of tanks and armored vehicles were scorned by the high command.
Consequently de Gaulle was refused promotions to the rank of general, and remained a colonel. He was nickname colonel
Motor by his fellow officers in the French military, who used the English word "motor" on purpose to caricature de Gaulle as
a reckless partisan of tanks. In French, English words had, and still have, a feeling of modernity, sometimes to the point of
being too recklessly new.
- Gaulle: This is how the military leaders of Vichy France called
de Gaulle. They were scornful of a two-star general who pretended to be the incarnation of France in London. They took away the aristocratic particle "de" to belittle de Gaulle. Gaulle is also homophonic with
the French word "gaule", the long pole that is used to harvest walnuts. This French word can also be understood in slang
as meaning "dumb".
- le grand Charles: This was used in political caricatures, referring to the tall height of de Gaulle (1m94 - 6'4").
Although used by caricaturists, there is often a friendly feeling to it. Nowadays, this phrase can still be heard sometimes, when
people in casual conversation refer to de Gaulle, but with a little scornful tone in the voice (often it is pronounced with the
voice trailing on "Charles").
- mon grand: Used in some famous satirical cartoons. A very famous one shows the Eiffel Tower welcoming de Gaulle during the Liberation of Paris, bending to embrace him, and calling him mon grand. Other cartoons in the
1960s show Marianne, the personification of France, casually conversing with de Gaulle, and calling him mon grand. In French, mon grand is the way
a mother tenderly calls her son.
- la grande Zohra: This is a derogatory expression that was used by the Europeans living in French Algeria and the
people in favor of French Algeria. After de Gaulle opted for the independence of
Algeria, he became the subject of much hatred among all the people who favored a French Algeria. "Zohra" is reportedly the way
North African Arabs colloquially call the camel. Often this expression is associated in the mind with a drawing of de Gaulle
dressed as an Arab woman, complete with ear rings and veil, with only his big nose protruding from the veil. Perhaps there was
the idea that de Gaulle was "prostituting" himself with the independence Algerian rebellion. The use of the feminine, instead of
the masculine, also has a diminutive effect in French. Today, the expression is still heard sometimes among the pied noir community.
- Charlot a reference to Charlie Chaplin character, used by
opponents.
Things named after Charles de Gaulle
Many streets and public buildings in France bear the name of Charles de Gaulle. Let us cite:
De Gaulle has influenced many across the world. Consequently, places outside France also bear the name of the general. For
example:
- Charles de Gaulle - Chairman of the Provisional Government
- Georges Bidault - Minister of Foreign Affairs
- André Diethelm -
Minister of War
- Adrien Tixier - Minister of
the Interior
- Aimé Lepercq - Minister of
Finance
- Pierre Mendès-France - Minister of National
Economy
- Robert Lacoste - Minister
of Industrial Production
- Alexandre Parodi -
Minister of Labour and Social Security
- François de
Menthon - Minister of Justice
- Louis Jacquinot - Minister of Marine
- Charles Tillon - Minister
of Air
- René Capitant - Minister
of National Education
- Henri Frenay - Minister of Prisoners, Displaced Persons, and
Refugees
- François Tanguy-Prigent - Minister of
Agriculture
- Paul Giacobbi - Minister of
Supply
- René Pleven - Minister of Colonies
- René Mayer - Minister of Public Works and Transport
- François Billoux -
Minister of Public Health
- Augustin Laurent -
Minister of Posts.
- Pierre-Henri Teitgen - Minister of Information.
- Georges Catroux -
Minister of North Africa
- Jules Jeanneney -
Minister of State
Changes
- Charles de Gaulle - Chairman of the Provisional Government
- Georges Bidault - Minister of Foreign Affairs
- Edmond Michelet -
Minister of Armies
- Charles Tillon - Minister
of Armaments
- Adrien Tixier - Minister of
the Interior
- René Pleven - Minister of Finance
- François Billoux -
Minister of National Economy
- Marcel Paul - Minister of
Industrial Production
- Ambroise Croizat -
Minister of Labour
- Pierre-Henri Teitgen - Minister of Justice
- Paul Giacobbi - Minister of
National Education
- Laurent Casanova -
Minister of Veterans and War Victims
- François Tanguy-Prigent - Minister of
Agriculture and Supply
- Jacques Soustelle - Minister of Colonies
- Jules Moch - Minister of Public Works and Transport
- Robert Prigent - Minister
of Population
- Raoul Dautry - Minister of
Reconstruction and Town Planning
- Eugène Thomas - Minister
of Posts
- André Malraux - Minister of Information
- Vincent Auriol - Minister of State
- Francisque Gay - Minister
of State
- Louis Jacquinot - Minister of State
- Maurice Thorez - Minister of State
- Charles de Gaulle - President of the Council and Minister of National Defense
- Maurice Couve de Murville - Minister of
Foreign Affairs
- Émile Pelletier -
Minister of the Interior
- Antoine Pinay - Minister of Finance and interim Minister of Public
Works, Transport, and Tourism
- Édouard Ramonet -
Minister of Industry
- Paul Bacon - Minister of Labour
- Edmond Michelet -
Minister of Veterand and War Victims
- Michel Debré - Minister of Justice
- Jean Berthoin - Minister of
National Education
- Roger Houdet - Minister of
Agricultur
- Bernard
Cornut-Gentille - Minister of Overseas France
- Robert Buron - Minister of
Public Works, Transport, and Tourism
- Eugène Thomas - Minister
of Posts
- Édouard Ramonet -
Minister of Commerce
- Pierre Sudreau - Minister
of Construction
- Max Lejeune - Minister of
Sahara
- Guy Mollet - Minister of State
- Pierre Pflimlin - Minister of State
- Félix Houphouët-Boigny - Minister of State
- Louis Jacquinot - Minister of State
Changes
- 12 June 1958 - André Malraux enters the cabinet as Minister of Radio, Television, and
Press
- 14 June 1958 - Guy Mollet becomes Minister of General Civil Servants Status
- 7 July 1958 - Bernard Chenot enters the cabinet as
Minister of Public Health and Population. Jacques Soustelle
succeeds Malraux as Minister of Information.
- 23 July 1958 - Antoine Pinay becomes
Minister of Economic Affairs, remaining also Minister of Finance.
Charles de Gaulle's grandson, Charles de
Gaulle is a member of the
European Parliament for the National
Front.
Quotes
- Qui est Ky ? ("Who is Ky") When he was informed Nguyen Cao
Ky had severed diplomatic relations with France.
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