| Feminism is a term to describe various social theories and
political movements primarily developed and motivated by the
experience of women. While generally providing a critique of social relations, many proponents of feminism also focus on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of
women's rights, interests, and issues.
Feminist theory aims to understand the nature of inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations and sexuality.
Feminist political activism campaigns on issues such as reproductive rights, domestic violence,
maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment, discrimination and sexual violence. Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression and patriarchy.
The basis of feminist ideology is that rights, privilege, status and obligations
should not be determined by gender.
Modern feminist theory has been extensively criticized as being predominantly, but not exclusively, associated with western
middle class academia. Feminist activism, however, is a grass roots movement which crosses class and race boundaries. It is
culturally specific and addresses the issues relevant to the women of that society, for example female circumcision in Sudan, or the glass ceiling in developed economies. Some issues, such as rape, incest, and mothering are
universal.
History
Main article: History of feminism.
Feminism became organized in the 19th century as people increasingly
perceived that women were oppressed in the male-centered society (see patriarchy). The feminist movement was rooted in the progressive movement and especially in the reform movement of the 19th
century. The organized movement was dated from the first women's rights convention at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. In 1869, John Stuart Mill published The Subjection of
Women to demonstrate that "the legal subordination of one sex to the other is wrong...and...one of the chief hindrances to
human improvement."
Emmeline Pankhurst was one of the founders of the suffragette movement and aimed to reveal the institutional sexism in British society,
forming the Women's Social and
Political Union (WSPU). After many members were jailed repeatedly under the Cat and Mouse Act for trivial misdemeanours in activism, they were inspired to go on hunger strikes. The
resultant force feeding caused these members to be very ill, serving to draw attention to the brutality of the legal system at
the time and, thus, further their cause.
Over a century and a half the movement has grown to include diverse perspectives on what constitutes discrimination against
women. Early feminists and primary feminist movements are often called the first-wave, and feminists after about 1960 the second-wave. There is a so-called third-wave, but feminists and others disagree as to its necessity,
its benefits, and its ideas, much as second-wave feminism was debated.
A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman, written by Mary Wollstonecraft, is
one of the few works written before the 19th century that can be called
feminist. Another is the Declamation on the Nobility and Preeminence of the Female Sex, written by the occult philosopher Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa in the year 1529. In modern
feminism a book by anthropologist Margaret Mead, entitled "Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies" (1935)
was published. She was a professor at Columbia University, where Bella Abzug
studied (Abzug eventually became one of the main leaders of American feminism). In Mead's book, women were reported to be
dominant in the Tchambuli tribe, without causing any problems. Among intellectuals of Abzug's era, the book inspired the belief
that European ideas of masculinity and femininity were very much cultural, rather than being indelibly instinctive.
Feminism in many forms
The name "feminism" suggests a single ideology, but in reality the movement has many subgroups. Due to historical precedents,
the current legal status of women in certain countries, and other factors, feminist ideology has been compelled to move in
different directions to achieve its goals. As a result, there are many different kinds of feminism.
One subtype of feminism, Radical feminism, considers patriarchy to be the root cause of the most serious social problems. Violence and
oppression of women, because they are women, is more fundamental than oppressions related to class, ethnicity, religion, etc.
This form of feminism was popular in the so-called second
wave (a "wave" being a large major change in general feminist ideas), though it is not as prominent today. However, many
still equate the word "feminism" to mean solely the ideas proposed by Radical feminism. Some find that the prioritization of
oppression and the universalization of the idea of "Woman", which was part of traditional Radical feminist thinking, too generic,
and that women in other countries would never experience the same experience of being "woman" than women in Western countries
did.
Some radical feminists advocate separatism—a complete separation of
male and female in society and culture—while others question not only the relationship between men and women, but the very
meaning of "man" and "woman" as well (see Queer theory). Some argue that
gender roles, gender
identity, and sexuality are themselves social
constructs (see also heteronormativity). For these feminists,
feminism is a primary means to human liberation (i.e., the liberation of men as well as women, and men and women from other
social problems).
Other feminists believe that there may be social problems separate from or prior to patriarchy (e.g., racism or class
divisions); they see feminism as one movement of liberation among many, each affecting the others.
Subtypes of feminism
Although many leaders of feminism have been women, not all feminists are women. Some feminists argue that men should not take
positions of leadership in the movement, because men, having been socialized to aggressively seek positions of power or direct
the agendas within a leadership hierarchy, would apply this tendency to feminist organizations; or that women, having been
socialized to defer to men, would be hinder in developing or expressing their own self-leadership in working too closely with
men. However, most feminists do accept and seek the support of men. Compare pro-feminist, humanism, masculism.
Relationship to other movements
Most feminists take a holistic approach to politics, believing the saying of Martin Luther King Jr., "A threat to justice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere". In that
belief, some feminists usually support other movements such as the civil rights movement, the gay rights
movement and, more recently Fathers' rights. At the same time
many black feminists such as bell hooks criticise the movement for being
dominated by white women. Feminist claims about the disadvantages women face in Western society are often less relevant to the
lives of black women. This idea is the key in postcolonial
feminism. Many black feminist women prefer the term womanism for their
views.
However, feminists are sometimes wary of the transsexual movement because
they challenge the distinctions between men and women. Transsexual women are excluded from some "women-only" gatherings and
events and are rejected by some feminists who say that no one born male can truly understand the oppression women face. This is
criticized as transphobic by transsexual women who assert that the
discrimination and various struggles (such as that for legal recognitions) that they face due to asserting their gender identity,
more than makes up for any they may have "missed out on" growing up, and that discrimination against gender-variant people is
another face of heterosexism and patriarchy. See transfeminism and gender studies.
Effect of Feminism in the West
Feminism has effected many changes in Western society, including women's suffrage; broad employment for women at more equitable wages ("equal pay for equal work"); the
right to initiate divorce proceedings and "no fault" divorce; the right of women to
control their own bodies and medical decisions, including obtaining birth control devices and safe abortions; and many others. Some feminists would argue that there is still much to be done on these fronts,
while third-wave feminists would disagree and claim that the battle has basically "been won". As Western society has become
increasingly accepting of feminist principles, some of these are no longer seen as specifically feminist, because they have been
adopted by all or most people. Some beliefs that were radical for their time are now mainstream political thought. Almost no one
in Western societies today questions the right of women to vote, choose her own marital partner if any, or to own land, concepts
that seemed quite strange only 100 years ago.
Feminists are often proponents of using non-sexist
language, using "Ms." to refer to both married and unmarried women, for example, or the
ironic use of the term "herstory" instead of "history". Feminists are also often proponents of using gender-inclusive
language, such as "humanity" instead of "mankind", or "he or she" in place of "he" where the gender is unknown. Feminists in most
cases advance their desired use of language either to promote an equal and respectful treatment of women or to affect the tone of
political discourse. This can be seen as a move to change language which has been viewed by some feminists as imbued with sexism
- providing for example the case in the English language the word
for the general pronoun is "he" or "his" (The child should have his paper and pencils), which is the same as the masculine
pronoun (The boy and his truck). These feminists purport that language then directly affects perception of reality
(compare Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis). However, to take a
postcolonial analysis of this point, many languages other than English may not have such a gendered pronoun instance and
thus changing language may not be as important to some feminists as others. Yet, English is becoming more and more universal, and
the issue of language may be seen to be of growing importance.
Effect on heterosexual relationships
The feminist movements have certainly affected the nature of heterosexual relationships in Western and other societies
affected by feminism. While these effects have generally been seen as positive, there have been some negative consequences.
In some of these relationships, there has been a change in the power relationship between men and women. In these
circumstances, women and men have had to adapt to relatively new situations, sometimes causing confusions about role and
identity. Women can now avail themselves more to new opportunities, but some have suffered with the demands of trying to live up
to the so-called "superwomen" identity, and have struggled to 'have it all', i.e. manage to happily balance a career and family.
In response to the family issue, many Socialist feminists blame this on the lack of state-provided childcare facilities. Instead
of the onus of childcare resting solely on the female, men have started to recognize their responsibilities to assist in managing
family matters.
There have been changes also in attitudes towards sexual morality and behaviour with the onset of second wave feminism and
"the Pill": women are then more in control of their body, and
are able to experience sex with more freedom than was previously socially accepted for them. This sexual revolution that women were then able to experience was seen as
positive (especially by sex-positive feminists)
as it enabled women and men to experience sex in a free and equal manner. However, some feminists felt that the results of the
sexual revolution only was beneficial to men. Whether Marriage is an institution
that oppresses women and men, or not, has generated discussion. Those that do view it as oppressive sometimes opt for cohabitation.
Effect on religion
Feminism has had a great effect on many aspects of religion. In liberal branches
of Protestant Christianity, women are now ordained as
clergy, and in Reform,
Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism, women are now
ordained as rabbis and cantors. Within these
Christian and Jewish groups,
women have gradually become more nearly equal to men by obtaining positions of power; their perspectives are now sought out in
developing new statements of belief. These trends, however, have been resisted within Islam and Roman Catholicism. All the mainstream
denominations of Islam forbid Muslim women from being recognized as religious clergy
and scholars in the same way that Muslim men are accepted. Liberal movements within Islam have nonetheless persisted in trying to bring about feminist
reforms in Muslim societies. Roman Catholicism has historically
excluded women from entering the main Church hierarchy and does not allow women to hold any positions as clergy except as nuns.
Feminism also has had an important role in embracing new forms of religion. Neopagan religions especially tend to emphasise the importance of Goddess spirtuality, and question what they regard as traditonal religion's hostility to women and the sacred
feminine. In particular Dianic Wicca is a religion whose origins lie within
radical feminism. Among traditional religions, feminism has led to
self examination, with reclaimed positive Christian and Islamic views and ideals of Mary,
Islamic views of Fatima Zahra, and especially to the Catholic belief in the
Coredemptrix, as counterexamples.
However, criticism of these efforts as unable to salvage corrupt church structures and philosophies continues. Some argue that
Mary, with her status as mother and virgin, and as traditionally the main role model for women, sets women up to aspire to an
impossible ideal and also thus has negative consequences on human sense of identity and sexuality.
There is a separate article on God and gender; it discusses how
monotheistic religions reconcile their theologies with contemporary gender issues, and how modern feminism has influenced the
theology of many religions.
Effect on moral education
Opponents of feminism claim that women's quest for external power, as opposed to the internal power to affect other people's
ethics and values, has left a vacuum in the area of moral training, where women formerly
held sway. Some feminists reply that the education, including the moral education, of children has never been, and should not be,
seen as the exclusive responsibility of women. Paradoxically, it is also held by others that the moral education of children at
home in the form of homeschooling is itself a women's movement. Such
arguments are entangled within the larger disagreements of the Culture
Wars, as well as within feminist (and anti-feminist) ideas regarding custodianship of societal morals and compassion.
Worldwide statistics
The following is a sampling of statistics related to the relative status of women worldwide.
- Worldwide, women work more than men, when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, according to the
United Nations Human Development Report 2004: Section 28, Gender,
Work Burden, and Time Allocation (http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf). In rural areas of the developing
countries surveyed, women perform an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 98 minutes per day. In the OECD
countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 18 minutes per day.
- Women own only 1 percent of the world's wealth, and earn 10 percent of the world's income, despite making up 51 percent of
the population.
- Women are underrepresented in all of the world's legislative bodies (see Women in National Parliaments, November 2004 (http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm)). In 1985, Finland had the largest percentage of women in national legislature at approximately 32
percent (P. Norris, Women's Legislative Participation in Western Europe, West European Politics). Currently, Sweden has the highest number of women at 45 percent. The United States has just 14 percent. The world average is just 9 percent. (Wales, while not an independent country has 50% of its members being women.)
- In much of the third world, women are considered as effectively property,
and have no legal rights in practice. Millions of women are expected to undergo female circumcision. In some areas, rape is used as a sentence
for a crime, even crimes not committed by the women themselves. (See, for example, the case of Mukhtaran Bibi.)
Perspective: the nature of the modern movement
Most feminists believe discrimination against women still exists in North American and European nations, as well as worldwide.
But there are many ideas within the movement regarding the severity of current problems, what the problems are, and how to
confront them. Extremes on the one hand include some radical feminists such as Mary
Daly who argues that the world would be better off with dramatically fewer men. There are also dissidents, such as Christina Hoff Sommers or Camille Paglia, who identify themselves as feminist but who accuse the movement of anti-male prejudices.
Many feminists question the use of the "feminist" label as applying to these individuals.
Many feminists, however, also question the use of the term feminist to refer to any who espouse violence to any gender
or who fail to recognize a fundamental equality between the sexes. Some feminists, like Katha Pollitt (see her book Reasonable Creatures) or Nadine
Strossen (President of the ACLU and author of Defending Pornography [a treatise
on freedom of speech]), consider feminism to be, solely, the view that "women are people." Views that separate the sexes rather
than unite them are considered by these people to be sexist rather than feminist.
There are also debates between difference feminists such
as Carol Gilligan on the one hand, who believe that there are important
differences between the sexes (which may or may not be inherent, but which cannot be ignored), and those who believe that there
are no essential differences between the sexes, and that the roles observed in society are due to conditioning. Modern scientists
sometimes disagree on whether inborn differences exist between men and women (other than physical differences such as anatomy,
chromosomes, and hormones). Regardless of how many differences between the sexes are inherent or acquired, feminists agree none
of these differences is a basis for discrimination.
Criticisms of feminism
Feminism has attracted attention due to its large effects in social change in Western society. While feminism in some forms is
generally accepted, dissenting voices do exist.
Some critics (both male and female) find that some feminists are effectively preaching hate against males or claiming male
inferiority, citing that if the words "male" and "female" were replaced by "black" and "white" respectively in some feminist
writings, the texts could be viewed as racist propaganda. While some feminists generally disagree with the view that men are
equally oppressed under patriarchy, other feminists, especially third-wave feminists agree that men are similarly oppressed and that gender equality means oppression
of neither gender.
Many feel that while feminists claim to believe in equality of the sexes, the ideology of present-day feminism is inherently
gynocentric (http://en.wiktionary.org/pac/Gynocentric). These critics cite both the etymology and
symbology of the contemporary feminist movement, and the constant focus of its work on issues that affect women. They feel that
followers of this ideology tend to see the world through a certain lens, leading them to be prejudiced. These critics say that
the feminists start with the assumption that women are widely oppressed in contemporary America, and never stray from that
assumption – leading to observations that are clouded by confirmation bias. This group of critics would like to see a new
non gender-biased term replace “feminism,” such as “gender egalitarianism." This term would then replace “feminism” when used in reference to
the belief, close to universal now in contemporary Western culture, in basic equal rights and opportunities for both sexes.
Some argue that because of feminism, males are beginning to be oppressed. Those who make this claim often note that males die
from suicide 4 times more frequently than females attempting suicide in the USA; rates climbed dramatically during the 1980s and
early 1990s; 72% of all suicides are white males; slightly over half of all suicides are adult men, aged 25-65; critics conclude
that the USA is becoming a country where males especially white males are severely oppressed. (See statistics here (http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/en/374.pdf)) The global statistics are similar (See
statistics for [1] (http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/selfdirectedviolfacts.pdf)).
According to sociologists, there are various reasons for these suicide rate increases, and they do not indicate a greater level
of male oppression. Some studies of the 20 year increase in male suicide rates (ending in 1998, when the rate began to decrease)
have found only a correlation between it and: local economic health and employment rates, suicide methods preferred by men, male
isolation if divorced, women seeking treatment for depression in far greater numbers than do men, and (especially) aging
populations. It should be noted that during the same approximate period (1952 to 1995) the rates for teen and elder suicide
nearly tripled.
Many people object to the feminist movement as trying to destroy traditional gender roles. They say that men and women have
many natural differences and that everyone benefits from recognizing those differences. For example, children are thought to
benefit from having a masculine father and a feminine mother; in this view, divorce, single parenthood, or non-traditional gender
roles are all seen as harming children more than do conflict in the home, dual but poor role models, or new definitions of
masculinity, femininity, or family. The traditional nuclear family is now an exceptional background in the US, and has been the
subject of many critiques characterizing it as a racist or culturally ignorant or nostalgic idealized model.
Criticism has been made that social change and legal reform have gone too far and now negatively affect men and families with
children. For example, it has been suggested that custody hearings in divorces are biased towards the mother, and several
organizations have formed to fight for fathers' rights.
Some men also express worry that a belief in the glass ceiling for
women has led to women being promoted more than men for the purpose of public relations than for their merit. This could be compared to affirmative action; thus, feminists who favour such a method of reform usually present arguments similar
to those used for defending affirmative action (i.e. that such a system is required to offset the results of previous
discrimination).
There is also a group of Paleo-Conservatives including George Gilder and
Pat Buchanan that have argued that feminism has produced a fundamentally
unworkable, self-destructive, stagnant society. These authors have noted that all of the societies in which feminism has
developed the most have below replacement rates of fertility, high rates of immigration (frequently from countries with cultures
and religions extremely hostile to feminism). In the US, the "liberal" religious groups most accepting of feminism have had noted
decline-in both conversions and natural increase. The most rapidly growing major religion in the US is Islam which is extremely hostile to feminism.
Although efforts to curb sexual harassment against women in
the workplace are normally applauded, there are those who note that the situation is such that the concern directed towards women
in resolving disputes of sexual harassment is indirect discrimination, in that less concern is given to men when they are the
subject of the claims, or when they are claiming a case of sexual harassment. Since the 1990s, proving sexual harassment in the
United States (by either men or women) has been made much more difficult by Supreme Court decisions.
Postcolonial feminists criticise Western forms of
feminism, notably radical feminism and its most basic assumption,
universalization of female experience. These feminists argue that the assumption of a global experience as a woman is based on a
white middle-class experience in which gender oppression is primary, and cannot apply to women for whom gender oppression may
come second to racial or class oppression.
Today, young women most commonly associate "feminism" with radical feminism, and this has put off a lot of these women from
being active in feminism, spurring a move away from second-wave labels. However, the basic values of feminism (gender equality of rights and
opportunities) have become so integrated into Western culture as to be accepted over-whelmingly as valid, and non-conformity to
those values characterized as unacceptable, by the same men and women who reject the label "feminist".
Literature
- Judith Butler (1994). "Feminism in Any Other Name",
differences 6:2-3: 44-45.
- Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975, University of Minnesota Press 1990
- Karen Kampwirth, Feminism and the Legacy of Revolution: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Chiapas, Ohio UP 2004
- Gerda Lerner, The Creation
of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy, Oxford University Press 1994
- Kaja Silverman, Male Subjectivity at the Margins, p.2-3. New
York: Routledge 1992
- Calvin Thomas, ed., "Introduction: Identification, Appropriation, Proliferation", Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and
the Subject of Heterosexuality, p.39n. University of Illinois Press (2000)
External links
Feminist organizations
Feminist resources
Neutral
Critics
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