Jesus of Nazareth (b. about 6–4 BC
and d. about AD 29–33) was a Jewish preacher and healer, and — especially when referred to as Jesus Christ — is the
central figure in Christianity, and an important prophet in Islam. (Among Christians, he is often referred to using the honorifically capitalized pronouns
"He", "Him", and "His".) "Jesus" transliterates the Greek
Ιησους [Iēsoûs], itself a transliteration from Aramaic or Hebrew (ie:
Yeshua). "Christ" is a theological title, transliterating the Greek Χριστός
[Christos], in turn a translation derived from the Hebrew "Mashiach", meaning
"anointed" or "the anointed one and his anointing."
While little (other than the birth stories) is known of his early days, we have more infomation about the last year or so of
his life from the four Gospels and the complete works of Josephus.
Most secular scholars accept his existence, and calculate the birth and death dates given above based on independently known
events implied in those scriptural documents. Many, and probably most groups
identifying themselves as Christians further believe, based on those Gospels, various combinations of tradition accumulated since, and/or personal experiences of various kinds, that Jesus was the Messiah, the
Son of God, and one of the persons in the Godhead of the Trinity. Many would equate Jesus with God
himself.
It is commonly thought that Jesus preached for a period of three years, yet it is never mentioned explicitly in any of the
gospels. In the Gospel of John, a timeline is described which depicts a
ministry time period of approximately one year (Passover to Passover). This theory of a one year ministry would coincide with the
type and shadow of the passover lamb (lamb of God) being a yearling lamb.
The acts and words attributed to Jesus by the Gospels constitute Christianity's basic teachings. At least one of the Gospels
states each of the following:
Paul the Apostle also claimed that some five hundred people had
witnessed his state of resurrection, including Paul himself.
Historicity
Main articles: Historicity of Jesus, Jesus and textual evidence
The main written sources for knowledge about Jesus' life are the four canonical Gospels and several non-canonical gospels. Most historians agree that the source documents on which the four canonical
Gospels are based were written within living memory of Jesus's lifetime. They therefore accept that the accounts of the life of
Jesus in those Gospels provide a reasonable basis of evidence, by the standards of ancient history, for the historical existence
of Jesus and the basic facts of his life, death and resurrection.
A minority of historians argue that no such person as Jesus ever existed. Even many who do accept his existence, however, are
deeply divided over the historicity of the Gospels' accounts. Some say that the Gospel accounts are not an honest and objective
account of events, since they were written or compiled by his followers. Those who also adopt a purely naturalistic view of
history are particularly skeptical about events such as the resurrection of Jesus and other miracles mentioned in the Gospels.
Religious perspectives
Main article: Religious
perspectives on Jesus
The vast majority of groups identifying themselves as Christians believe Jesus was God
Incarnate (a man who was the earthly aspect of God, as part of the Holy Trinity), who came to earth to save humanity from sin and death through
the shedding of his own blood in sacrifice (salvation), and who returned from the dead to rejoin
his Father in Heaven. However, some groups identifying themselves as Christian, such as
Jehovah's Witnesses, Unitarians, and Christian Scientists, believe
Jesus was divinely inspired but not God incarnate. See also Nicene Creed.
Islam views of Jesus (whom they call Isa) hold
that he was one of the prophets of Israel and the Messiah, but that the miracles were
performed by God on Jesus' behalf, and consider any belief that he is divine to be a heresy, irreconcilable with Islam's monotheistic beliefs. The Ahmadiyya believe that Jesus was sent to reform, rather than prophesy, to the Hebrew people including the "Ten Lost Tribes", and hold that Jesus
was crucified but did not die as a result. The Bahá'í Faith considers
Jesus to be a manifestation of God, while not being God incarnate.
Judaism has deemed Jesus a false messiah, and religious Jews are still awaiting the arrival of the Messiah; many Jews see Jesus as a
minor miracle worker or failed rebel leader, but a small number consider him a great teacher. Some scholars believe that Jesus is
mentioned as Yeshu in the Jewish Talmud,
although many scholars dispute this. Hinduism is divided on the issue of
Jesus—some hold that he was just a man, others say he was a great guru or yogi, others still equate Jesus with an avatar. He has
been claimed as an Ascended Master by Theosophy and some of its offshoots; related speculations have him
studying mysticism in the Himalaya
or hermeticism in Egypt in the period
between his childhood and his public career.
The discipline of Christology discusses who Jesus was or was not from a
philosophical and theological perspective. The Christological argument attempts to prove the existence of God based on the existence of Jesus and
his alleged claims about himself.
The questions of the divinity of Jesus was discussed and voted on by Ecumenical Councils, starting with Constantine I's attempts at producing unity, enforcement of the resulting decision thus
suggesting an air of politicisation to the supposedly religious issue. It is not the case that all scholars reject Jesus'
divinity, yet some may choose to describe the social and cultural implications of claiming divinity in the 1st century AD. As such, scholars are interested in providing an historical context
to the beliefs and tenets of Jesus' Kingdom of God movement. They
believe he was simply a Jewish apocalyptic teacher and faith healer who was crucified, and was subsequently the inspiration for Christianity.
Date of birth and death
Main article: Chronology of Jesus' birth and death
The most detailed information about Jesus' birth and death is contained in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. There
is considerable debate about the details of Jesus' birth even among Christian scholars. Few, if any, scholars claim to know
either the year or the date of his birth or of his death.
Based on the accounts in the gospels of the shepherds' activities, the time of year depicted for Jesus' birth would likely be
spring or summer. However, as early as 354 AD, Roman Christians celebrated it following the December solstice in an attempt to replace the Roman pagan festival
of Saturnalia. Before then, Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on January 6
as part of the feast of Theophany, also known as Epiphany, which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism
by John in the Jordan and possibly additional events in Jesus' life.
In the 248th year of the Diocletian Era (based on Diocletian's accession to the Roman throne), Dionysius Exiguus attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of
753 years after the founding of Rome. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being December 25, 1 BC, making the then current year AD 532, and thereby
establishing the present system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus: Anno Domini. Based on a lunar eclipse that Josephus reports shortly before the death of Herod the Great, however, the birth of Christ would have been some time before the year 4 BC, probably 5 or 6
BC.
As for Jesus' death there is a controversy that may never be resolved. All the synoptic gospels depict the crucifixion after the Passover, whereas St John's Gospel depicts the crucifixion before the Passover festival. Further, the Jews
followed a lunisolar calendar with phases of the moon as dates,
complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. Allowing for the time of the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate and the dates of the
Passover in those years, his death can be placed most probably in AD 30 or AD 33.
Resurrection
According to Christian belief, Jesus was raised from the dead on the
third day after his crucifixion. This event is referred to in Christian terminology as the resurrection of Jesus Christ, and is
commemorated and celebrated by most groups who consider themselves Christians each year at Easter. Most Christians accept the New Testament story as an
historical account of an actual event central to their faith, although some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection (e.g. John Shelby Spong). Non-Christians generally view the New Testament account of the
resurrection of Jesus as myth or fictional to varying degrees. Additionally, members of The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the Mormons, believe that after his resurrection
Jesus visited other people who believed in him around the world, including those in America, as related by the Book of Mormon.
Life and teaching according to the New Testament
Main articles: New
Testament view on Jesus' life and Resurrection of
Jesus
Jesus was born in Bethlehem to a Jewish family, while Nazareth in Galilee was his childhood home, as the son of a
virgin named Maryam (Mary) and God. Mary's husband was
Yosef (Joseph), who had sons called Ya`qov (James), Yosef (Joseph), Yuda (Judas), and
Shim`on (Simon), and some daughters, who may, or may not, be the children from a previous marriage rather than Mary's.
The Gospels do not describe any of Jesus' life between the ages of 12 and 30, the
last incident before the gap being that he instructed the scholars in the temple, neither is much of his childhood discussed
(though some non-Biblical texts go into this detail).
However, just after he was baptized by John the Baptist, a kinsman of Jesus, he began his public teaching.
Jesus used a variety of methods in his teaching, such as paradox, metaphor and parable, leaving it unclear how
literally he wished to be taken and precisely what he meant. Jesus also performed various miracles in the course of his ministry, ranging from cures to exorcisms, with several others that show a dominion over nature. Scholars in mainstream Christian traditions as
well as many secular scholars view these as claims of supernatural power. However, others consider the stories to be allegorical—"He made the blind to see, and the deaf to hear" is interpreted by many
as meaning "He opened the eyes of people to the truth."
Jesus debated with many religious leaders including the opposing forces of Sadducees and Pharisees, and produced an argument which a few
modern scholars think indicates that Jesus may have been a liberal Pharisee, or an Essene. For many years in the first millennium, Jesus was cast as an enemy of the Pharisees, as the Pharisees had
become the dominant sect of Judaism. In his role as a social reformer, and with his followers holding the inflammatory view that
he was Messiah, Jesus threatened the status quo.
Jesus also preached the imminent end of the current era of history, in some sense a literal end of the world as people of his
time knew it; in this sense he was an apocalyptic preacher bringing a message
about the imminent end of the world the Jews knew. Some interpretations of the text, particularly amongst Protestants, suggest that Jesus opposed stringent interpretations of Jewish law, supporting the spirit of the law more than the letter of the law.
The Bible does not explicitly indicate that Jesus had any romantic relationships, and most scholars and Christians think that
he had none. However, some contrary interpretations are based on references to "the disciple whom Jesus loved", usually thought
to refer to John the Apostle though some think it might be a
reference to Lazarus, and a lesser number still think it may be Mary Magdalene.
Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival, created
a disturbance at the Temple by overturning the tables of the
moneychangers there, and was subsequently arrested on the orders of the Sanhedrin
and the High Priest, Joseph Caiaphas. He was identified to the guards by one of his
Apostles, Yuda (Judas Iscariot), who is portrayed as having betrayed
Jesus, by a kiss.
Jesus was crucified by the Romans on the reluctant orders of Pontius
Pilate, bowing to the Jewish religious leaders' pressure. A deal with Pilate by Joseph of Arimathea resulted in the body being taken down and entombed, during the presence of Mary and
other women, notably Mary Magdalene.
Jesus' disciples encountered him again on the third day after his death, raised back to life. No one was a witness to the
resurrection, though those who went to anoint the body
found the tomb empty. After the resurrection, the Gospels give various accounts of Jesus meeting various people in various places
over a period of forty days before "ascending into heaven".
According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible, the theme of Jesus'
preaching was that of apocalyptic repentance. Later, Jesus extensively trained twelve Apostles to continue his teachings. Most Christians who hold that Jesus' miracles were literally true, not
allegory, think that the Apostles gained the power to perform healing for both Jews and Gentiles alike after they had been empowered by the Holy Spirit which he was to send to them following his
Ascension.
Names and titles
Main article: Names and titles of
Jesus
Jesus is derived from the Greek
Ιησους (Iēsoûs) via Latin. The earliest use of Iēsoûs is found in
the Septuagint, as a transliteration of the Hebrew name
Yehoshua (יהושע — known in English as Joshua
when transliterated directly from Hebrew), and also Yeshua
(ישוע). Modern scholars have suggested that Jesus' Aramaic name was ישׁוע /
Yēšûaʿ (as in the Syriac New Testament) which was a fairly common name
at the time. His patronymic would have been, ben Yosef, for "son of Joseph".
Christ is not a name but a title, which comes from the Greek Χριστός
(Christos) via Latin, meaning anointed with chrism. The Greek form is a liberal
translation of Messiah from Hebrew mashiach (משיח) or Aramaic m'shikha
(משיחא), a word which occurs often in the Hebrew
Bible and typically refers to the "high priest" or "king". The title Christ is
also sometimes identified with the Greek chrestos, meaning "good", although the words are unrelated in terms of etymology,
and Chrestus was often used as a pet name for slaves.
The Gospels record Jesus referring to himself both as Son of Man and
as Son of God, but not as God the Son. However, some scholars
have argued that Son of Man was an expression that functioned as an indirect first person pronoun, and that Son of
God was an expression that signified "a righteous person". Evidence for these positions is provided by similar use by other
persons than Jesus at a similar time to the writing of the Gospels, such as Jewish priests and judges.
In the Gospels, Jesus has many other titles, including Prophet, Lord, and King of the Jews. Together, the majority of Christians understand these titles as attesting to Jesus'
divinity. Some historians argue that when used in other Hebrew and Aramaic texts of the time, these titles have other meanings,
and therefore may have other meanings when used in the Gospels as well.
Cultural and historical background
Main article: Cultural and historical background of Jesus
The world in which Jesus lived was volatile, marked by cultural and political dilemmas. Culturally, Jews had to grapple with the values and philosophy of Hellenism,
together with the paradox that their Torah applied only to them, but revealed universal
truths. This situation led to new interpretations of the Torah, influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile
interest in Judaism.
All of the Land of Israel belonged to the Roman Empire at the time given for Jesus' birth, but it was directly ruled by King
Herod the Great. After Herod's death in 4 BC, Judea and Samaria were
combined into the Roman province of Palestina, ruled by the Jewish High Priest under the supervision of a Roman procurator. Galilee, where Jesus allegedly grew up, remained under the jurisdiction of
Herod's son, the Tetrarch Herod Antipas.
Within Judaism, there were several parties, primarily the Sadducees, closely
connected with the priesthood and the Temple, and the Pharisees, who were
teachers and leaders of the synagogues. They resented Roman occupation, but at
Jesus' time were not particularly political. Isolated in small communities from these main groups, by choice, lived the Essenes, whose theology and philosophy are perceived as having influenced Jesus and/or
John the Baptist by many scholars. The Zealots, who advocated direct action against the Romans (eventually leading to the destruction of the temple,
and the subsequent decline of the Saducees and Essenes), may have been active at this time (though this is debated).
Many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king (or Messiah) of
the line of David — in their view the last legitimate Jewish regime. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by
God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Therefore the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish
king only through divine intervention; thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule. Some like John the Baptist in the first
half of the century, and Yehoshua ben Ananias in the second, claimed that a messianic age was at hand. Others believed that the
kingdom should be restored immediately, through violent human action.
Relics
Main article: Relics of Jesus
There are many items that are purported to be authentic relics of the Gospel account,
which are listed in the main article. The most famous alleged relics of Jesus are the Shroud of Turin, which is claimed to be the burial shroud used to
wrap his body, and the Holy Grail which is said to have been used to collect
his blood during his crucifixion and possibly used at The Last Supper. Many modern Christians, however, do not accept any of these
as true relics. Indeed, this skepticism has been around for centuries, with Erasmus
joking that so much wood formed parts of the True Cross, that Jesus must have
been crucified on a whole forest.
Artistic portrayals
Main articles: Dramatic
portrayals of Jesus Christ, Images of Jesus
Jesus has been featured in many films and media forms, sometimes seriously, and other times satirically. Many of these portrayals have attracted controversy, whether they were intended to be based on the
Biblical accounts (such as Mel Gibson's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ and Pier Pasolini's The Gospel According to St. Matthew) or intentionally added extra material (such as
The Last Temptation of Christ).
Another recurring theme is the up-dating of aspects of the life of Jesus, or imagining his Second Coming (for example, The Seventh Sign). In many films Jesus himself is a minor character, used
to develop the overall themes or to provide context. For example, in Ben-Hur
and The Life of Brian Jesus only appears in a few
scenes.
In music, many songs refer to
Jesus and Jesus provides the theme for many classical works throughout musical history.
Jesus has been portrayed in countless paintings and sculptures throughout the middle ages, renaissance, and modern times.
Sources and further reading
- The New Testament of the Bible, especially the Gospels.
- Albright, William F. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: An Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, ISBN 0931464013
- Ehrman, Bart. Jesus: apocalyptic prophet of the new millennium, ISBN 019512474X
- Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, ISBN 0195154622
- Fredriksen, Paula. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity ISBN 0679767460
- Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180
- Mendenhall, George E. The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition, The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1973. ISBN 0-8018-1654-8. A study of
the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of
Jesus in that context.
- Mendenhall, George E. Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context, Westminster John
Knox Press, 2001. ISBN 0-664-22313-3.
Another, less technical, study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats
the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context.
- Pelikan, Jaroslav. Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture, Yale University Press (http://www.yale.edu/yup/), 1985, hardcover, 270 pages, ISBN 0300034962; trade paperback, HarperCollins
reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804;
trade paperback, Yale University Press, 1999, 320 pages, ISBN 0300079877
- Sanders, E.P. The historical figure of Jesus, Penguin, 1996, ISBN 0140144994. An up-to-date, popular, but
thoroughly scholarly book.
- Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the
previous book, though not inaccessible.
- Theissen, Gerd, and Annette Merz. The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. An amazing book, tough but
rewarding, exceptionally detailed.
- Theissen, Gerd. The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form. Fortress Press.
- Lewis, C.S. Mere Christianity
- Vermes, Geza. Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels ISBN 0800614437
- Vermes, Geza. The Religion of Jesus the Jew ISBN 0800627970
- Vermes, Geza. Jesus in his Jewish context ISBN 0800636236
- Walvoord, John F. Jesus Christ Our Lord. Moody Press, 1969. ISBN 0802443265
- Wilson, Ian Jesus: The evidence ISBN 0297835297
- Yoder, John H. The Politics of Jesus ISBN 0-8028-0734-8
- Yogananda, Paramahansa: The Second Coming of Christ, ISBN 0876125550
- In Quest of the Hero:(Mythos Series) — Otto Rank, Lord Fitzroy Richard Somerset Raglan and Alan Dundes,
Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN
0691020620
- Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History.
- The Superhuman life of Gesar of Ling — Alexandra David-Neel (A divine hero still in oral tradition)
- The Jewish historian Josephus allegedly wrote about Jesus in
Antiquities, Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph www.josephus-1.com. Most scholars regard this passage as a later insertion.
- Bloodline of the Holy Grail by Laurence Gardner. A popular book, but with a hypothesis that would not be accepted by
mainstream scholars.
- Jesus and the Victory of God N.T.Wright, SPCK (London), 1996
ISBN 0281047170. Second in a projected
massive five or six volume series on Christian origins, dealing with the life and death of Christ from a very open Evangelical
perspective. The author is now Bishop of Durham (Church of England).
- Michael H. Hart, The 100, Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500
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