| Military science concerns itself with the study and of the diverse technical, psychological, and practical phenomena
that encompass the events that make up warfare, especially armed combat. It strives to be an all-encompassing scientific system
that if properly employed, will greatly enhance the practitioner's ability to prevail in an armed conflict with any adversary. To
this end, it is unconcerned whether that adversary is an opposing military force, guerrillas or other irregulars, or even knows
of or utilizes military science in return.
Military (land battle) science encompasses six major branches, as follows:
Military organization
Develops optimal methods for the administration and organization of military units, as well as the military as a whole. In
addition, this area studies other associated aspects as mobilization/demobilization, and military government for areas recently
conquered (or liberated) from enemy control.
See also military unit.
Studies the methodology and practices involved in training soldiers, NCOs (non-commissioned officers, i.e. sergeants), and
officers. It also extends this to training small and large units, both individually and in concert with one another for both the
regular and reserve organizations. Military training, especially for officers, also concerns itself with general education and
political indoctrination of the armed forces.
Military activity has been a constant process over thousands of years, and the essential tactics, strategy, and goals of
military operations have been unchanging throughout history. As an example one notable maneuver is the double envelopment,
considered to be the consummate military maneuver, first executed by Hannibal in the battle of Cannae in 216 B.C.—over
2,200 years ago. By the study of history, the military seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current
performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during battle, so as to capitalize on the
lessons learned. The main areas military history includes are the history of wars, battles, and combats, history of the military
art, and history of each specific military service.
Military
geography
Military geography encompasses much more than simple protestations to take the high ground. Military geography studies the
obvious, the geography of theatres of war, but also the additional characteristics of politics, economics, and other natural
features of locations of likely conflict (the political "landscape", for example). As an example, the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan was predicated
on the ability of the Soviet Union to not only successfully invade Afghanistan, but also to militarily and politically flank the
Iranian republic simultaneously.
Military technology is not just the study of various technologies and applicable physical sciences used to increase military
power. It may also extend to the study of production methods of military equipment, and ways to improve performance and reduce
material and/or technological requirements for its production. An example is the effort expended by Nazi Germany to produce artificial rubbers and fuels to reduce or eliminate their dependence on imported POL
(petroleum, oil, and lubricants) and rubber supplies. Military technology is unique only in its application, not in its use of
basic scientific and technological achievements. Because of the uniqueness of use, military technological studies strive to
incorporate evolutionary, as well as the rare revolutionary technologies into their proper place of military application.
Military art is in many ways the centerpiece of military science. It studies the specifics of combat, and attempts to reduce
the many factors to a set of principles that govern all interactions of the field of battle. As such, it directs the planning and
execution of battles, operations, and wars as a whole. Two major systems prevail on the planet today. Broadly speaking, these may
be described as the "Western" system, and the "Russian" system. Each system reflects and supports strengths and weakness in the
underlying society. Generally, "Western" societies have higher levels of education and technology. In contrast, third-world
(based on the Russian system) societies have lower levels of education and technology, but have much more raw manpower in their
military than Western societies are willing (or able) to devote.
Modern Western military art is composed primarily of an amalgam of French, German, British, and United States systems. The
Russian system borrows from these systems as well, either through study, or personal observation in the form of invasion (
Napoleon's War of 1812, and The Great Patriotic War), and form a unique product suited for the conditions practitioners of this
system will encounter. The system that is produced by the analysis provided by Military Art is known as doctrine.
Western military doctrine relies heavily on technology, the
use of a well-trained and empowered NCO cadre, and superior information processing and dissemination to provide a level of
battlefield awareness that opponents cannot match. Its advantages are extreme flexibility, extreme lethality, and a focus on
removing an opponents C3I (command, communications, control, and intelligence) to paralyze and incapacitate rather than
destroying their combat power directly (hopefully saving lives in the process). Its drawbacks are high expense, a reliance on
difficult to replace personnel, an enormous logistic train, and a difficulty in operating without high technology assets if
depleted or destroyed.
Soviet
military doctrine (and its descendants, in CIS countries) relies heavily on masses of machinery and troops, a highly educated
(albeit very small) officer corps, and pre-planned missions. Its advantages are that it does not require well educated troops,
does not require a large logistic train, is under tight central control, and does not rely on a sophisticated C3I system after
the initiation of a course of action. Its disadvantages are inflexibility, a reliance on the shock effect of mass (with a
resulting high cost in lives and material), and overall inability to exploit unexpected success or respond to unexpected
loss.
Chinese
military doctrine is currently in a state of flux as the People's Liberation Army is evaluating military trends of relevance to China. Chinese military
doctrine is influenced by a number of sources including an indigenous classical military tradition characterized by strategists
such as Sun Tzu, Western and Soviet influences, as well as indigenous modern
strategists such as Mao Zedong. One distinctive characteristic of Chinese
military science is that it places emphasis on the relationship between the military and society as well as views military force
as merely one part of an overarching grand strategy.
Each system trains its officer corps in its philosophy regarding military art. The differences in content and emphasis are
illustrative.
Western
The Western principles of military art as follows (derived from U.S. Army Field Manual FM 100-5):
- Objective – Direct every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive and attainable objective. The
ultimate military purpose of war is the destruction of the enemy's ability to fight and will to fight
- Offensive – Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. Offensive action is the most effective and decisive way
to attain a clearly defined common objective. Offensive operations are the means by which a military force seizes and holds the
initiative while maintaining freedom of action and achieving decisive results. This is fundamentally true across all levels of
war.
- Mass – Mass the effects of overwhelming combat power at the decisive place and time. Synchronizing all the
elements of combat power where they will have decisive effect on an enemy force in a short period of time is to achieve mass.
Massing effects, rather than concentrating forces, can enable numerically inferior forces to achieve decisive results, while
limiting exposure to enemy fire.
- Economy of Force – Employ all combat power available in the most effective way possible; allocate minimum
essential combat power to secondary efforts. Economy of force is the judicious employment and distribution of forces. No part of
the force should ever be left without purpose. The allocation of available combat power to such tasks as limited attacks,
defense, delays, deception, or even retrograde operations is measured in order to achieve mass elsewhere at the decisive point
and time on the battlefield. ...
- Maneuver – Place the enemy in a position of disadvantage through the flexible application of combat power.
Maneuver is the movement of forces in relation to the enemy to gain positional advantage. Effective maneuver keeps the enemy off
balance and protects the force. It is used to exploit successes, to preserve freedom of action, and to reduce vulnerability. It
continually poses new problems for the enemy by rendering his actions ineffective, eventually leading to defeat. ...
- Unity of Command – For every objective, seek unity of command and unity of effort. At all levels of war,
employment of military forces in a manner that masses combat power toward a common objective requires unity of command and unity
of effort. Unity of command means that all the forces are under one responsible commander. It requires a single commander with
the requisite authority to direct all forces in pursuit of a unified purpose. ...
- Security – Never permit the enemy to acquire unexpected advantage. Security enhances freedom of action by
reducing vulnerability to hostile acts, influence, or surprise. Security results from the measures taken by a commander to
protect his forces. Knowledge and understanding of enemy strategy, tactics, doctrine, and staff planning improve the detailed
planning of adequate security measures.
- Surprise – Strike the enemy at a time or place or in a manner for which he is unprepared. Surprise can
decisively shift the balance of combat power. By seeking surprise, forces can achieve success well out of proportion to the
effort expended. Surprise can be in tempo, size of force, direction or location of main effort, and timing. Deception can aid the
probability of achieving surprise. ...
- Simplicity – Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and concise orders to ensure thorough understanding. Everything
in war is very simple, but the simple thing is difficult. To the uninitiated, military operations are not difficult. Simplicity
contributes to successful operations. Simple plans and clear, concise orders minimize misunderstanding and confusion. Other
factors being equal, the simplest plan is preferable.
Soviet
The Soviet principles of military art, from Soviet AirLand Battle Tactics
ISBN 0-89141-160-7. Similar principles
continue to be followed in CIS
countries.
- Preparedness – The ability to fulfill missions under any conditions for starting or the conduct of war.
- Initiative – Utilizing surprise, decisiveness, and aggressiveness to continuously strive to achieve and retain
the initiative. Initiative, in this sense describes efforts to fulfill the plan in spite of difficulties. This is in contrast to
the western usage of the term which implies problem-solving and improvisation in order to deal with changed circumstances.
- Capability – Full use of the various means and capabilities of battle to achieve victory.
- Cooperation – Coordinated application of and close cooperation between major units of the armed forces.
- Concentration – Decisive concentration of the essential force at the needed moment and in the most important
direction to achieve the main mission.
- Depth – Destruction of the enemy throughout the entire depth of their deployment.
- Morale – Use of political and psychological factors to demoralize opponents and break their will to resist.
- Obedience – Strict and uninterrupted obedience. Orders are to be followed exactly and without question.
Commanders are expected to directly supervise subordinates in a detailed manner in order to ensure compliance.
- Steadfastness – Subordinate commanders are to carry out the spirit and the letter of the plan.
- Security – Security complements surprise. All aspects of security, from deception and secrecy, to severe
discipline of subordinates who through action or inaction allow information to fall into the hands of the enemy are to be
vigorously carried out.
- Logistics – Restoration of reserves and restoration of combat
capability is of paramount concern of the modern, fast paced battlefield.
Thus it can be seen that in Military art, the Soviet and Western systems are similar, but place their emphasis in wildly
differing places. Western systems allow more control and decision-making at lower levels of command, and with this empowerment
comes a consistent emphasis. Offensive, mass, and maneuver principles for the western commander all place a sense of personal
responsibility and authority to ensure these principles are followed by appropriate action. In contrast the Soviet system
stresses preparedness, initiative, and obedience. This places more responsibility at the better prepared and informed centers of
command, and provide more overall control of the battle.
Chinese
Because the military doctrines of the People's Liberation Army are in a state of flux, it is difficult to give a capsule
summary of a single doctrine which is expounded with the PLA. Rather the PLA is currently influenced by three doctrinal schools
which both conflict and complement each other. These three schools are
- People's war – which is derived from the Maoist notion
of warfare as a war in which the entire society is mobilized
- Regional war – which envisions future wars to be limited in scope and confined to the Chinese border
- Revolution in military
affairs – which is a school of thought which believes that technology is transforming the basis of warfare and that
these technological changes present both extreme dangers and possibilities for the Chinese military.
The differences in the specifics of Military art notwithstanding, Military science strives to provide an integrated picture of
the chaos of battle, and illuminate basic insights that apply to all combatants, not just those who agree with your formulation
of the principles.
Squad
Squadron
Strategy
Tactics
Operational art
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