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The Ottoman Empire was a multi-ethnic state that existed from 1281 to 1923, one of the largest empires to rule the borders of
the Mediterranean Sea which, at its height, comprised Anatolia, the Middle East, part of
North Africa, and south-eastern Europe. It was established by a tribe of Oghuz Turks in western
Anatolia and ruled by the Osmanli
dynasty. In diplomatic circles it was often referred to as the Sublime
Porte or simply as the Porte, from the French
translation of the Ottoman name Bâb-i-âlî "high gate", due to the
greeting ceremony the sultan held for foreign ambassadors at the Palace Gate. This has also been interpreted as referring to the
Empire's position as gateway between Europe and Asia. In its day, the Ottoman Empire was also commonly referred to as the
Turkish Empire or Turkey, though it should not be confused with the modern nation-state of that name.
The Empire was founded by Osman I (in Arabic Uthmān, hence the name
Ottoman Empire). In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities and the countries of
Europe felt threatened by its steady advance through the Balkans.
At its height, it comprised an area of 11,955,000 km². From 1517 onwards, the Ottoman
Sultan was also the Caliph of Islam, and the Ottoman Empire was from 1517 until
1922 (or 1924) synonymous with the Caliphate, the Islamic State. In 1453, after the
Ottoman captured the city of Constantinople (İstanbul in
modern Turkish) from the Greek, it became the Ottoman empire's capital. Following World War
I, during which most of its territories were captured by the Allies, Ottoman elites
established modern Turkey during the Turkish War of Independence.
History
Main article: History of the Ottoman
Empire
The Ottoman State was founded as an autonomous state or Beylik in 1281 by Osman I, who was earlier Bey of his tribe. Murad I was the first Ottoman to claim the title of
king sultan. As sultan Mehmed II
conquered Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, the state became a mighty empire with Mehmed II as its Emperor. The Empire reached its apex under Suleiman I in the
16th century when it stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east to Hungary in the northwest; and from
Egypt in the south to the Caucasus in the
north. The Empire was situated in the middle of East and West and interacted throughout its 6 century history with both the
East and the West.
In this time period, the Empire tried to stop or slow down the colonization of the rest of the world by the European powers.
Fleets with soldiers and scientists were sent to far away places as Kenya in Africa and Atjeh in Indonesia, which were in many cases successful in teaching the local peoples how to build guns and cannons, and of course hit-and-run guerilla tactics were
taught. The Dutch Protestants were
helped by the Ottomans against Catholic Spain.
In the 17th century, the Ottomans were weakened both internally as well
as externally by costly wars especially against Persia, as well as with Russia and Austria-Hungary.
Eventually, after a defeat at the Battle of Vienna, in 1683, it was clear that the Ottoman Empire was no longer the sole superpower in Europe. After a series of reforms, the empire continued to be one of the major political powers of
Europe, eventually joining the Central Powers in World War I. The Ottoman Empire was defeated by the Allies during the war and its territories were colonized by the victors. After the Turkish War of Independence (1918–1923), Republic of
Turkey was founded on October 29, 1923 from the remnants of the fallen empire.
State organisation
Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman state organisation was based on a hierarchy with the sultan in the top and below him his viziers, other court officials, and military commanders.
Culture
Main article: Culture of the Ottoman
Empire
During the medieval age, the Ottoman Turks had an incredibly high tolerance of alien cultures and religions, especially if
compared to the Christian West. Early on as the Turks drew out the Byzantines from Anatolia and later pursued them into Europe.
But, as the Ottomans moved further west and the Turkic leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of the conquered people.
The alien culture was gradually added to the Turks' own, creating the characteristic Ottoman culture. After the capturing of
Istanbul in 1453, most churches were left intact and only Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque. The Ottoman court life
in many aspects resembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences. For
centuries, the Ottoman Empire was the refuge of the Jews of Europe, who did not have the
freedom of religion in Europe that the citizens of the Ottoman Empire did.
Military
Main article: Military of the Ottoman
Empire
The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the
core and they were given fiefs called timars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to
those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most
advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The famous Janissary corps provided élite troops and bodyguards for the sultan. After the 17th century, however, the
Ottomans could no longer produce a modern fighting force because of a lack of reforms, mainly because of the corrupted
Janissaries. The abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826 was not enough, and in the war
against Russia, the Ottoman Empire severely lacked modern weapons and technologies.
Provinces
Main article: Provinces of the
Ottoman Empire
At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire had 29 provinces plus three tributary principalities and Transsylvania, a kingdom which swore allegiance to the Porte.
Sultans
Main article: Osmanli Dynasty
The sultan, also known as the Padishah, in Europe sometimes the Grand Turk, was the sole regent and government of the empire, at least
officially. The dynasty is most often called the Osmanli or the House of Osman. The
sultan enjoyed many titles such as Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, Khan
of Khans, and from 1517 onwards, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe, i.e. Caliph,
which theoretically also gave him overlordship over other Muslim rulers around the world. For example, among the Mughal Emperors of India, only
Aurangzeb had the Khutba read in his
own name. Note that the first rulers never called themselves sultan, but rather bey. The sultan title was established by Murad I in 1383. See the article on State organisation of the Ottoman Empire for further information on the sultan and
the structure of power.
Note: Although Abdul Mejid II was chosen as caliph in 1922, he was not a sultan, as the National Assembly had abolished the sultanate. The
caliphate was abolished in turn in 1924.
External links
- Ottoman Web Site (http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/engindex.html) — Site with a lot of information on
the Ottomans.
- Royal Ark: Turkey (http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Turkey/turkey.htm) — Extensive site with a lot of detailed
information.
- World Civilizations: The Ottomans (http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM) — Comprehensible site that covers
much about the state and government.
- The Ottomans (http://www.theottomans.org) — Good site that covers various aspects of the Ottoman
Empire in detail.
References
- Barbara Jelavich,
History of the Balkans, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, Cambridge
University Press, 1983. ISBN 0521252490. See "Balkan Christians under
Ottoman Rule", pages 39–126.
- Colin Imber, The Ottoman
Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power,
2002. ISBN 0333613864.
- Gülru Necipo
Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the
Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, 1991. ISBN 0262140500.
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