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Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = soul and
logos = word) is the study of behaviour, mind and thought. It is largely concerned with humans, although the
behaviour and thought of animals is also studied; either as a subject in its own right (see animal cognition), or more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by
means of comparison (see comparative psychology).
Psychology is conducted both scientifically and non-scientifically. Mainstream psychology is based largely on positivism, using quantitative studies and the scientific method to test and disprove hypotheses,
often in an experimental context. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on
scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand behaviour. However, not all psychological research methods follow the classical scientific method. Qualitative research utilizes
interpretive techniques and is descriptive in nature, enabling the gathering of rich clinical information unattainable by
classical experimentation. Some psychologists, particularly adherents to humanistic psychology, may go as far as completely rejecting a scientific approach. However,
mainstream psychology has a bias towards the scientific method,
which is reflected in the dominance of cognitivism as the guiding theoretical framework used by
most psychologists to understand thought and behaviour.
Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information
processing theories of mind. Increasingly though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological
theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive
neuroscience.
Psychology differs from sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science, in part, by studying the behaviour of individuals (alone or in groups) rather
than the behaviour of the groups or aggregates themselves. Although psychological questions were asked in antiquity (see Aristotle's De Memoria et Reminiscentia or "On Memory and Recollection"),
psychology emerged as a separate discipline only recently. The first person to call himself a "psychologist", Wilhelm Wundt, opened the first psychological laboratory in 1879.
History
Main article: History of psychology
The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological
research (in Leipzig). Other important early psychologists include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in studies on memory), Ivan Pavlov (who 'discovered' the learning process of classical conditioning, and who should be regarded as a
physiologist), and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in (scientific)
psychology.
Major nineteenth and twentieth century schools of thought
Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of
human behaviour can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of
themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to
understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories.
Modern psychology
The majority of mainstream psychology is based on a framework derived from cognitive psychology, although the popularity of this paradigm does not exclude others, which are
often applied as necessary. Alternatively, a psychologist may specialise in an area in which cognitive psychology is rarely
used.
A psychologist will often attempt to measure or test
different aspects of psychological function, using psychometric and
statistical methods, including well known standardised tests as well as those
created as the situation requires.
Academic psychologists may focus purely on research, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while
other psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy
such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists
will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work.
Contemporary psychology is broad-based and consists of a diverse set of approaches, subject areas, and applications. A
comprehensive list is given in the Topics and Divisions sections below. Where an area of interest is considered to need specific
training and specialist knowledge (especially in applied areas), psychological societies will typically set up a governing body
to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students
acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. While the exact divisions may vary from country to country, the following
areas are usually considered as core subjects or approaches by psychology societies and universities.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is a framework in which to
understand the mind more than a subject area, although it has traditionally focused on certain aspects of psychology. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is based on a school of thought
known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for
an information processing model of mental function,
informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and
form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology.
Clinical and counseling psychology
Clinical psychology is the application of psychology to
the understanding, treatment, and assessment of psychopathology,
behavioural or mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with counselling and psychotherapy, although modern clinical
psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of
the same clients as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists do not prescribe
psychiatric drugs. Clinical psychologists largely work within the scientist-practitioner model where clinical problems are formulated as hypotheses to be tested
as information is gathered about the patient and his or her mental state. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical
management of patients with brain injury. This is known as clinical neuropsychology and typically involves additional
training in brain function.
In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has been developing between academic research
psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many academic psychologists believe that these clinicians
use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side,
these clinicians believe that the academics are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement has
resulted in the formation of the American
Psychological Society by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the American Psychological Association.
Developmental and educational psychology
Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through childhood (although development through adulthood is also
studied), developmental psychology seeks to
understand how children come to perceive, understand, and act within the world. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive,
neural, social, or moral development and involve a number of unique research methods to engage children in experimental tasks.
These tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically
useful. Educational psychology largely seeks to apply
much of this knowledge and understand how learning can best take place in educational situations. Because of this, the work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.
Forensic psychology
Forensic psychology is concerned with the psychology of
crime, criminals, and law enforcement. A forensic psychologist may be involved in assessment of
offenders or interventions to prevent offending behaviour, usually with people who have already come in contact with the legal or penal system. Often this involves working with offenders with mental health problems, or with people who
act dangerously or in an antisocial manner (for example, psychopaths).
Criminal profiling is another important role fulfilled by forensic psychologists and typically involves building psychological
profiles of unknown or at-large offenders from the known evidence.
Health psychology
Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behaviour
including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about
illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on
quality of life or in research into the psychological impact of
health and social care.
Industrial and organisational psychology
Involved with the application of psychology to the world of business, commerce and the function of organisations, industrial and organisational
psychology focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as
the psychology of recruitment, training, appraisal, job satisfaction, work behaviour, stress at work and management. Psychologists may also work on product design, interaction with machines or
software, advertising, sales, and marketing, to aid functionality, safety and appeal.
Neuropsychology
Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that aims to understand
how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes.
Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Cognitive neuropsychology is particularly concerned with
the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal
psychological function. Clinical neuropsychology is
the application of neuropsychology for the clinical management of patients with neurocognitive deficits.
Social psychology
Social psychology aims to understand how we make sense of
social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behaviour (e.g., conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Social cognition
is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behaviour.
Topics in psychology
Although in principle, psychology aims to explain all aspects of thought and behaviour, some topics have generated particular
interest, either due to their perceived importance, their ease of study or popularity. Many of the concepts studied by
professional psychology stem from the day-to-day psychology used by most people and learnt through experience. This is known as
folk psychology to distinguish it from psychological knowledge
developed through formal study and investigation. The extent to which folk psychology should be used as a basis for understanding
human experience is controversial, although theories that are based on everyday
notions of the mind have been among some of the most successful.
For a comprehensive list of psychological topics on wikipedia, please see the list of psychological topics.
Divisions and approaches in psychology
Different disciplines in psychology typically signify both a set of practices and an area of interest. The divisions are
largely arbitrary and overlapping (although they may have been formalised into areas of interest by psychological societies or
regulatory bodies) and most psychologists will use methods from each area as appropriate, even if they mostly focus on one area
of interest in their work.
Some related disciplines
Famous psychologists
See List of psychologists for a full list of famous
and influential psychologists.
Publications, References
See List of publications in
psychology for important publications in psychology.
External links
Psychology Resources
Psychology Societies
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