- For other uses, see Robot
(disambiguation)
In practical usage, a robot is a mechanical device which performs automated tasks, either according to direct human
supervision, a pre-defined program or, a set of general guidelines, using artificial intelligence techniques. These tasks either replace or enhance human work, such as in
manufacturing, construction or manipulation of heavy or hazardous materials.
Overview
A robot may include a feedback-driven connection between sense and action, not under direct human control. The action
may take the form of electro-magnetic motors or actuators (also called effectors)
that move an arm, open and close grips, or propel the robot. The step by step control and feedback is provided by a computer program run on either an external or embedded computer or a microcontroller. By this definition, a robot may include nearly all automated
devices.
Two basic ways of using effectors are to move the robot around (locomotion) or to move other object around (manipulation) These
divide robotics into two mostly separate categories: mobile robotics (moving) and manipulator robotics (grabbing).
Joints connect parts of manipulators. The most common joint types are:
- rotary (rotation around a fixed axis)
- prismatic (linear movement)
A parallel robot is one whose arms (primary axes) have three concurrent prismatic joints or both prismatic and rotary joints.
Degrees of freedom (DOF) means axes of movement. The human arm
has 7 DOF. A 6 DOF arm is highly flexible.
Proprioceptive sensors sense the robot's actuators (e.g., shaft encoders, joint angle sensors). Proprioception is one of the most important senses of the human body.
Alternately, robot has been used as the general term for a mechanical man, or an automaton resembling an animal, either real or imaginary. It has come to be applied to many machines which
directly replace a human or animal in work or play. In this way, a robot can be seen as a form of biomimicry. Lack of anthropomorphism is
perhaps what makes us reluctant to refer to the highly complex modern washer-dryer as a robot. However, in modern understanding,
the term implies a degree of autonomy that would exclude many automatic machine tools from being called robots. It is the search
for ever more highly autonomous robots which is the major focus of
robotics research and which drives much work in artificial intelligence.
Though we tend to think of robots as tremendously sophisticated, thanks typically to their anthropomorphic physical design and
our excess of indoctrination to the robots of 1960s television, the fundamental elements are very simple. Motion is achieved by
motors controlled by digital circuits that incorporate a key power semiconductor switching element called a thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). The robot turns when only one of two parallel motors is
actuated: for example, stopping the left motor while running the right motor causes the dummy to turn left. Digital signals fed
to the motor control circuitry determine which motors move at which times. The problem can range from very simple (e.g., turning
left or right) to very complex (e.g., controlling an elbow and wrist to move an item from a conveyor belt to a shelf). The
signals can be sent by an outside element (e.g., a human operator) or by internal circuitry that makes "decisions" based upon
observations of the robot's environment and may alter these decisions based upon whether the motion is proceeding satisfactorily
(see feedback).
Underlying simplicities notwithstanding, combinations of various computer systems and electromechanical subsystems can produce
the appearance of profound sophistication, e.g., a "chess-playing robot" that really should be viewed as two discrete systems:
(1) chess-playing software that has nothing to do with robotics; and (2) a robot that interacts with the chess board. The latter
requires the abilities to [a] locate a chessman on the board based upon its expected coordinates, [b] lift the man, [c] remove
any captured man from the board, and [d] reposition the first man--all without breaking or knocking down chess pieces or
committing other environmental faux pas.
History
The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legend of Cadmus, who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers; and the myth of Pygmalion, whose statue of Galatea came
to life. In classical mythology, the deformed god of metalwork (Vulcan
or Hephaestus) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden
handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power. Jewish legend tells of the Golem, an clay statue animated by Kabbalistic magic. Similarily, in the Younger Edda, Norse mythology tells of a clay
giant, Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the troll Hrungnir in a duel with Thor,
the God of Thunder.
The first recorded design of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo
da Vinci around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contained detailed drawings for a mechanical knight that was
apparently able to sit up, wave its arms, and move its head and jaw. The design was likely based on his anatomical research
recorded in the Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether or not he
attempted to build the robot (see: Leonardo's robot).
The first known functioning robot was created in 1738 by Jacques de Vaucanson, who made an android that played the flute, as
well as a mechanical duck that reportedly ate and defecated. E.T.A. Hoffmann's 1817 short
story "The Sandman" features a doll-like mechanical woman, and Edward S. Ellis' 1865 "Steam
Man of the Prairies" expresses the American fascination with industrialization. A wave of stories about humanoid automatons
culminated with the "Electric Man" by Luis Senarens in 1885.
Once technology advanced to the point where people foresaw mechanical creatures as more than toys, literary responses to the
concept of robots reflected fears that humans would be replaced by their own creations. Frankenstein (1818), sometimes called the first science fiction
novel, has become synonymous with this theme. When Capek's play RUR introduced the concept of an assembly line run by
robots who try to build still more robots, the theme took on economic and philosophical overtones, further disseminated by the
classic movie Metropolis (1927), and the popular Blade Runner
(1982) and The Terminator
(1984). With robots a reality and intelligent robots a likely prospect, a better
understanding of interactions between robots and human is embodied in such modern films as Spielberg's A.I. (movie) (2001) and
Proyas' I, Robot (2004).
Many consider the first robot in the modern sense to be a teleoperated boat, similar to a modern ROV, devised by Nikola Tesla and demonstrated at an 1898
exhibition in Madison Square Garden. Based on his patent 613,809 for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop the "wireless
torpedo" into an automated weapon system for the US Navy.
In the thirties, Westinghouse made a humanoid robot known as Elektro. It was exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs.
The first electronic autonomous robots were created by Grey Walter at Bristol
University, England in 1948.
Literary history
See also List of fictional
robots and androids
The word robot comes from the Czech robota meaning
"labor." Robot or Robotnick were used in the 1600's to classify Czech tenant-farmers. A Robot had to work as
a minimum one month a year free for the landlord, according to Karsten Alnaes in his "European History II". The word was first
used in its modern sense in Karel Capek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal
Robots) (written in 1920; first performed 1921; performed in New York 1922;
English edition published 1923). [1] (http://jerz.setonhill.edu/resources/RUR/). While Karel is frequently acknowledged as the
originator of the word, he wrote a short letter in reference to the Oxford English Dictionary etymology in which he named his brother, painter and writer Josef Capek as its true inventor. [2] (http://capek.misto.cz/english/robot.html).
Some claim that the word "robot" was first used in Josef Capek's short story Opilec (the Drunkard) published in the collection
Lelio in 1917. According to the Capek brother's Society in Prague, this is not correct. The word used in Opilec is "automat."
"Robot" appeared in RUR for the first time.
Although Capek's robots were organic artificial humans, the word robot has come
to refer to mechanical humans. The term android can mean either one of these, while a cyborg ("cybernetic
organism" or "bionic man") would be a creature that
is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.
The word "robotics" was first used (in print) in Isaac Asimov's story
Runaround (1942). In it, he referred to the 'three rules of robotics' that later became the
Three Laws of Robotics in the short fiction collection
I, Robot.
Contemporary uses of robots
Robots are being used today to do the tasks that are too dirty, dangerous, difficult, repetitive or dull for humans. This
usually takes the form of industrial robots used in manufacturing
lines. Other applications include toxic waste cleanup, space exploration, mining,
search and rescue, and mine finding. Manufacturing remains the primary market where robots are utilized. In particular,
articulated robots, similar in motion capability to the human arm, are the most widely used. Applications include welding,
painting and machine loading. The automotive industry has
taken full advantage of this new technology where robots have been programmed to replace human labor in many simple repetitive
tasks. The wide adoption of such technologies, however, was delayed by the availability of cheap labour and high capital
requirements of robotics. Robotic AGVs (Automated Guided Vehicles) and other autonomous delivery robots are beginning to be used
in the industry, hospitals, laboratories, server facilities and other applications where risk, reliability and security are
important concerns. Likewise, autonomously patrolling safety and security robots are appearing as part of the growing move toward
automated buildings.
While robotic technology has achieved a certain amount of maturity, the social impact of these robots is largely unknown. The
field of social robots is now emerging and investigates the relationship
between robots and humans. A ludobot is an instance of a social robot dedicated to entertainment and companionship.
In early 2000s domestic robots have entered the mainstream culture, with the success of Sony's Aibo and several manufacturers releasing robotic vacuum
cleaners. The most popular category of home robots is the robotic vacuum cleaners, with 570,000 units sold worldwide by the end of 2003
[3] (http://www.unece.org/press/pr2004/04robots_index.htm). Japanese corporations are notorious
for their successes in developing humanoid robots and their plans to use the technology not only in their manufacturing plants,
but also in Japanese homes. There is much hope in Japan, that home care for an aging (and long-lived) population can be better achieved through robotics.
Robots have also been explored as a form of High-tech Art. The Austin Robot group and LMABTechnics have produced many interesting pieces such as Sparky
[4] (http://www.netaxs.com/~sparky/art/Sparky) and GeniumAR8.
Current developments
When roboticists first attempted to mimic human and animal gaits, they discovered that it was incredibly difficult; requiring more computational power than
what was available at the time. So, emphasis was shifted to other areas of research. Simple wheeled robots were used to conduct
experiments in behavior, navigation, and path planning. These navigation techniques have now developed into commercially available autonomous robot
control systems; the most sophisticated examples of autonomous navigation control systems now available include the
commercial/industrial ARCS laser-based navigation system from ActivMedia/MobileRobots and the home/consumer-oriented VSLAM-based
NorthStar system.
When engineers were ready to attempt walking robots again, they started small with hexapods and other multi-legged platforms. These robots mimicked insects and arthropods in both form and function.
The trend towards these body types offer immense flexibility and proven adaptability to any environment. With more than four
legs, these robots are statically stable which makes them easier to work with. Even though significant progress towards bipedal locomotion in robots has been made only recently, in just 4
years after the introduction of Asimo bipedal robots such as KHR-1 that cost only $1300 became available.
The latest in robotics technology, has come from the same company that has produced their younger generation entertainment
robot dog, Sony. Sony has created Qrio. It is extremely precise and quiet in its movements. It is able to walk on two legs and
respond to changes in its environment, and even can recover from a fall.
Another technical problem preventing wider adoption of robots is the complexity of handling physical objects in the inherently
chaotic natural environment. Tactile sensors and better vision algorithms may solve this problem. Librarian robot from University Jaume I in Spain is a good example of current
progress in this field.
Recently, tremendous progress has been made in medical robotics, with two companies in particular, Computer Motion and
Intuitive Surgical, receiving regulatory approval in North America, Europe and Asia for their robots to be used in minimal
invasive surgical procedures. Laboratory automation is also a growing area. Here, benchtop robots are used to transport
biological or chemical samples between instruments such as incubators, liquid handlers and readers. Other places where robots are
likely to replace human labour are in deep-sea exploration and space exploration. For these tasks, arthropod body types are generally preferred. Mark W. Tilden
formerly of Los Alamos National
Laboratories specializes in cheap robots with bent but unjointed legs, while others seek to replicate the full jointed motion
of crabs' legs.
Experimental winged robots and other examples exploiting biomimicry are also
in early development. So-called "nanomotors" and "smart wires" are expected to drastically simplify motive power, while in-flight stabilization seems likely
to be improved by extremely small gyroscopes. A significant driver of this work is military research into spy technologies.
Future prospects
Some scientists believe that robots will be able to approximate human-like intelligence
in the first half of the 21st century. Even before such theoretical intelligence levels are obtained, it is speculated that
robots may begin to replace humans in many labor-intensive career fields. The cybernetics pioneer Norbert Wiener discussed some of
these issues in his book The human use of human beings (1950), in which he speculated that robots taking over
human jobs may initially lead to growing unemployment and social turmoil, but that in the medium-term it might bring increased
material wealth to people in most nations.
Robotics will probably continue its spread in offices and homes, replacing "dumb" appliances with smart robotic equivalents.
Domestic robots capable of performing many household tasks, described in science fiction stories and coveted by the public in the
1960s, are likely to be eventually perfected.
There is likely to be some degree of convergence between humans and robots. Some humans are already cyborgs with some body parts and even parts of the nervous system replaced by artificial analogues ,such as
Pacemakers. In many cases the same technology might be used both in robotics
and in medicine.
In January 2005 it was announced by South Korean inventor Kim Jong-Hwan that he is installing
software that would allow robots to mimic human DNA. Unlike the double-helix of human DNA,
robot DNA would consist of a single strand. The chromosomes would allow robots to develop human-like emotions and enable them to
reproduce.
Competitions
Dean Kamen, Founder of FIRST, and
the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) created a competitive forum that inspires in young people, their schools and communities an
appreciation of science and technology.
Their Robotics
Competition is a multinational competition that teams professionals and young people to solve an engineering design problem
in an intense and competitive way. In 2003 the competition will reach more than 20,000 students on over 800 teams in 24
competitions. Teams come from Canada, Brazil, the U.K., and almost every U.S. state. Unlike the Robot sumo wrestling competitions
that take place regularly in some venues, or the Battlebots competitions on TV, these competitions include the creation of
the robot.
RoboCup is a competitive organization dedicated to developing a team of fully
autonomous humanoid robots that can win against the human world soccer champion team by the year 2050. There are many different
leagues from simulation, to full-size humanoid.
RoboCup Jr. is exactly like
RoboCup. RoboCup Jr. is a competition for anybody under 18 years of age, and is a bit easier than the real RoboCup. RoboCup Jr.
includes three competitions: soccer (a soccer tournament), rescue (an obstacle course which an item has to be brought from one
end to the other) and dance (robots dancing to music judged for the dancing, creativity and costumes). Like RoboCup, all robots
have to be built and programmed by the team that made it, there is no buying other robots allowed.
The DARPA Grand Challenge is a competition for robotic
vehicles to complete an under-200 mile, off-road course in the Mojave Desert. The unclaimed 2004 prize was $1,000,000 while the
2005 prize is $2,000,000.
The two AAAI Grand Challenges focus on Human Robot
Interaction, with one being a robot attending and delivering a conference talk, the other being operator-interaction
challenges in rescue robotics.
The Centennial Challenges are NASA prize contests for non-government funded technological achievements, including robotics, by US
citizens.
In Micromouse competitions, small robots try to solve a maze in the fastest
time.
The popularity of the TV shows Robot Wars and Battlebots, of college level robot-sumo wrestling competitions, the success of "smart
bombs" and UCAVs in armed conflicts, grass-eating "gastrobots" in Florida, and the creation of a slug-eating robot in England,
suggest that the fear of an artificial life form doing harm, or competing with natural wild life, is not an illusion. The
worldwide Green Parties in 2002 were asking for public input on extending their existing policies against such competition, as part of more
general biosafety and biosecurity concerns. It appears that, like Aldous
Huxley's concerns about human cloning, questions Karel Capek raised
eighty years earlier in science fiction have become real debates.
Possible dangers
The concern that robots might displace or compete with humans is common. In his I, Robot series, Isaac Asimov created the Three Laws of Robotics in a literary attempt to control the
competition of robots with humans:
- A robot may not harm a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
- A robot must obey the orders given to it by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First
Law.
- A robot must protect its own existence, as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.
Unfortunately the issue may be not so simple to resolve. Asimov himself based the plots of many novels on probing into the
applicability and sufficiency of the Three Laws. The laws or rules that could or must apply to robots or other "autonomous
capital" in cooperation or competition with humans have spurred investigation of macro-economics of this competition, notably by Alessandro Acquisti building
on much older work by John von Neumann.
Even without overt malicious programming, robots and humans simply do not have the same body tolerances or awarenesses,
leading to accidents: In Jackson, Michigan on July 21, 1984, a factory robot crushed a worker against
a safety bar in apparently the first robot-related death in the United
States.
Classes of Robots
Research areas associated with robotics
Additional robot topics
Famous Robots
Operational robots
Robots in science fiction
External links
Media coverage and articles
General information and non-profit organizations
- ALA (http://www.labautomation.org/) – The Association for Laboratory Automation
- LRIG (http://www.lab-robotics.org/) – The Laboratory Robotics Interest Group
- Open Directory Section for Famous Robots (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Robotics/Robots/) – Links and descriptions for well-known
robots; Asimo, COG, and many others
- International Federation of
Robotics (http://www.ifr.org/)
- Robotics Engineering Task
Force (http://www.robo-etf.org/) (not updated since 2003)
- Eurobot, an international amateur
robotics contest (http://www.eurobot.org/eng/)
- robots.net (http://www.robots.net/) – Hobbyist and professional robotics site with news, robot
gallery, project descriptions, and articles
- Open Automaton
Project (http://oap.sourceforge.net/) at sourceforge.net
- The Robot Hall of
Fame (http://www.robothalloffame.org/)
- The Robot
Directory (http://www.robotdirectory.org/) – An online gallery of
robots
- Robotics India (http://www.roboticsindia.com/) – Robotics Community portal with forums, chat, downloads
and information relevant to robotics.
- The OrionWiki (http://www.orionrobots.co.uk/tiki-index.php) – Specifically aimed at technical content;
also: downloads and personal spaces for robot builders/hobbyists
- AmorphicRobotWorks(ARW) (http://www.amorphicrobotworks.org/) – A group working to create robotic performances
and installations
- www.robot.org.uk – A guide for
robot builders with lists of reviewed books, magazines, approved parts suppliers, etc.
- Robodock (http://www.robodock.org/) – A theater festival in The Netherlands heavily inspired by robotica.
- Robots
Forum (http://www.robotsrule.com/phpBB2/) Discussion forum for Robot
builders
- Robot Suits (http://www.robotsuits.com/) – Daily updated robotics news from around the web.
Commercial projects
- trueforce.com (http://www.trueforce.com/) – Technical information on robotics, with a list of
suppliers
- The Robofolio (http://www.robofolio.com/) – Build robots to order
- RoboticSpot.com (http://www.roboticspot.com/en/) – Site about robotics, news, events and articles in
English and Spanish
- Rhino Robotics (http://www.rhinorobotics.com/) – Manufacturer of educational robots
- mobilerobots.com (http://www.activrobots.com/) – Site for professional roboticists, robotics programmers
& researchers
- Robot Information
Central (http://www.robotics.com/robots.html) – Link directory at a
commercial site
- Robot Universe (http://www.iguana-robotics.com/RobotUniverse/) – Link directory at a commercial
site
- robots.com (http://www.robots.com/) – Pay per click directory of links with some items related to
robotics
- BGA
architecture and robotic software (http://ants.dif.um.es/~humberto/robots/)
- Fractal
Robots (http://www.autopenhosting.org/robots/) Information on Fractal
Robots
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