The War of 1812 was a conflict fought in North America between the United States and Great Britain. In British texts, the War of 1812 is sometimes known as the British-American War, to distinguish it from the concurrent British involvement in the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 is also sometimes referred to as the "War of 1812."

Although the United States was officially at war with Great Britain, more than half of the British forces were made up of Canadian militia. Additionally, many Native Americans fought in the war for reasons of their own.

Although the War of 1812 ended in a stalemate and is often only dimly remembered, the war had many effects on the futures of those involved. The war created a greater sense of nationalism in Canada and the United States, it produced a national anthem and two future presidents for the U.S., and perhaps most consequentially, the war marked the end of European alliances with Native Americans in the United States.

Causes of the war

In the years following the American Revolutionary War, there were many disputes and aggravations between Great Britain and the United States. When revolutionary France declared war upon Great Britain in 1793, the United States sought to remain neutral while pursuing overseas commerce with both nations, which created much tension. Additionally, Great Britain had not abandoned fortifications in the Great Lakes region as called for in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, and was continuing to supply Native Americans in the Northwest Territory who were at war with the United States. In 1795, the United States secured the Jay Treaty with Great Britain and the Treaty of Greenville with the Native Americans, and thus ended these conflicts for the time being.

However, when Great Britain and France went to war again in 1803 with renewed vigor, these same issues reappeared. Great Britain, short of manpower to keep the Royal Navy at sea, strictly enforced a policy of searching neutral vessels for British deserters. In 1807, HMS Leopard requested permission to board the USS Chesapeake. When this was refused, Leopard fired on and boarded the Chesapeake and carried off four seamen. Though the incident itself was minor, the American public was outraged at the slight.

Jefferson responded to the interference of France and Britain by stopping all foreign trade. The Embargo Act of 1807 prevented American ships from sailing to any foreign ports and closed American ports to British ships. Although the trade embargo decreased the number of American ships attacked by the French and British, it seriously damaged the economy of the United States due to a lack of markets for its goods. As it had relied on products imported from Europe to survive, the United States was forced into production of its own goods.

In the United States House of Representatives, a group of young men known as the "War Hawks" came to the forefront in 1811, led by Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The War Hawks advocated going to war against Great Britain for a variety of reasons, mostly related to the interference of the Royal Navy in American shipping, which the War Hawks believed hurt the American economy and injured American prestige. War Hawks from the western states also believed that the British were instigating Native Americans on the frontier to attack American settlements, and so the War Hawks called for an invasion of British Canada to end this threat.

In the U.S. presidential election of 1812, U.S. President James Madison argued for war against Britain. The War of 1812 was thus the first war "sold" to the American public via popular appeal. On June 1, 1812 he gave a speech to the U.S. Congress, giving several reasons for war:

• Ongoing impressment of American sailors into service on British Navy ships, an insulting breach of American sovereignty;
• Britain's navy "violating the rights and the peace of our coasts";
• Britain's blockade of U.S. ports ("our commerce has been plundered in every sea");
• Britain's refusal to repeal its Order-In-Council forbidding neutral countries to trade with European countries, and the British Navy's enforcement of this order;
• Britain's incitement of Native Americans (conventionally referred to as "savages") to violence against the Americans.

The Senate voted for war, 19 to 13. The conflict formally began with the American declaration of war on June 18. This was the first time that the United States had declared war on another nation. Critics of the war in the United States referred to it as "Mr. Madison's War."

Course of the war

Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, the United States was absolutely unready, while the United Kingdom was still hard pressed by the Napoleonic Wars, and was compelled to retain the greater part of her forces and her best crews in European waters, until the ruin of the Grande Armée in Russia and the rising of Germany left her free to send an overwhelming force of ships to American waters.

When the war began, the U.S. military was weak and inexperienced. The army consisted of only 7,000 men and small state militias; the navy had only 16 ships. The forces actually available on the American side at the outset of the war consisted of a small squadron of frigates and sloops in a war-ready state. The states were only able to commission a total of 22 ships. The paper strength of the army was 35,000, but the service was voluntary and unpopular, and there was an almost total lack of trained and experienced officers. The available strength was a bare third of the nominal. The militia, called in to aid the regulars, proved untrustworthy. They objected to serving outside their home states, were not amenable to discipline and as a rule, performed poorly in the presence of the enemy.

On the British side, the naval force in American waters under Sir John Borlase Warren, who took up the general command on September 26, 1812, consisted of ninety-seven vessels in all. Eleven of these were ships of the line and thirty-four were frigates, a power much greater than the national navy of America but inadequate for a blockade of the long coastline from New Brunswick to Florida. The total number of British troops present in Canada in July 1812 was officially stated to be 5,004 and consisted primarily of Canadians.

The war was conducted in four theatres of operations:

1. The Atlantic Ocean
2. The Great Lakes and the Canadian frontier
3. The coast of the United States
4. The American southwest

Operations on the ocean

Since the Battle of Trafalgar, Britain had been the world's most prominent naval power. On September 26, 1812, the Royal Navy had ninety-seven vessels in American waters. Of these, eleven were ships of the line and thirty-four were frigates. In contrast, the United States Navy, which was not yet twenty years old, had only twenty-two commissioned vessels, the largest of which were frigates.

The strategy of the British was to protect its own merchant shipping to and from Canada, and enforce a blockade of major American ports to restrict American trade. Due to their numerical inferiority, the Americans aimed to cause disruption through hit and run tactics, such as the capture of prizes and only enagaging Royal Navy vessels under favourable circumstances.

The Americans experienced much early success. On June 21, 1812, three days after the formal declaration of war, two small squadrons left New York. The ships included the frigate USS President and the sloop USS Hornet under Commodore John Rodgers (who had general command), and the frigates USS United States and USS Congress, with the brig USS Argus under Captain Stephen Decatur.

Two days later, the Hornet gave chase to the British frigate HMS Belvidera. Belvidera eventually escaped to Halifax, after discarding all unnecessary cargo overboard. The Hornet returned to Boston by August 31. Meanwhile, the USS Constitution commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, sailed from the Chesapeake on July 12 without orders, to avoid being blockaded. On July 17 a British squadron gave chase. The Constitution evaded its pursuers after two days, and put in at Boston. On August 2 the Constitution engaged the British frigate HMS Guerriere. After a twenty minute battle, the Guerriere had been dismasted and captured, and was later burned.

On October 25 the USS United States commanded by Captain Decatur captured the British frigate HMS Macedonian, which he carried back to port. At the close of the month the Constitution, sailed south under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. On December 20, off Bahia, Brazil, it met the British frigate HMS Java, which was carrying General Hislop, the governor of Bombay, to India. After a battle lasting three hours, the Java struck her colours and was burned after being judged unsalvageable.

In January 1813, the American frigate USS Essex, under the command of Captain David Porter, sailed into the Pacific, in an attempt to harass British shipping. Many British whaling ships carried letters of marque allowing them to prey on American whalers, nearly destroying the industry. The Essex challenged this practice. She inflicted an estimated $3,000,000 damage on British interests, before she was captured off Valparaíso, Chile, by the British frigate HMS Phoebe and the sloop HMS Cherub on March 28, 1814.

In all of these actions, except the one in which the Essex was taken, the Americans had the advantage of greater size and a heavier guns. Despite the greater experience in naval combat of the British, a large proportion of their seamen had been impressed. This contrasted with the Americans who were all volunteers, which may have given the Americans an edge in morale and seamanship.

The capture of three British frigates was a blow to the British and stimulated them to greater exertions. More vessels were deployed on the American seaboard and the blockade tightened. On June 1, 1813, the frigate USS Chesapeake was captured, as it attempted to leave Boston Harbor, by the British frigate HMS Shannon. This somewhat offset the blow to morale caused by previous disasters. The blockade of American ports had tightened to the extent that the United States ships found it increasingly more difficult to sail without meeting forces of superior strength. Because of this the Royal Navy was able to transport British Army troops to American shores, resulting in the burning of the White House.

The operations of American privateers were extensive. They continued until the close of the war and were only partially affected by the strict enforcement of convoy by the Royal Navy. An example of the audacity of the American cruisers was the capture of the American sloop USS Argus at St David's Head in Wales by the more heavily armed British sloop HMS Pelican, on August 14, 1813.

Operations on the Great Lakes and Canadian border

While they had expected little from their tiny navy, the American people had assumed that Canada could be easily overrun. Former U.S. President Thomas Jefferson dismissively referred to the conquest of Quebec as "a matter of marching." However, as they had taken no effectual measures to build up a mobile force, they would be disappointed. The commander of British forces, Sir George Prevost, was neither able nor energetic. His subordinate, Major-General Isaac Brock, was both—he was a career soldier who had served with Admiral Nelson in Holland. In July, Brock surprised the Americans by seizing Mackinac at the head of Lake Huron and, on August 16, with the aid of Tecumseh, forced the surrender of Detroit.

Strong British positions were Kingston at the east end of Lake Ontario and Montreal on the St Lawrence. Both were vulnerable to American attack—the latter via Lake Champlain. Sound reasoning would have led the Americans to direct their chief attacks on Kingston and Montreal, since success at those points would have isolated the British posts on Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron.

In the opening stages of conflict, British military experience prevailed over inexperienced American commanders. Brock had earned the confidence of Tecumseh and his native allies. He also understood that the Americans feared the natives who had experienced years of mistreatment at the hands of the American settlers. The alliance would be advantageous to the British at a critical stage, since the American forces outnumbered them. The professionalism of the American forces would improve by the war's end, while British leadership suffered after Brock's death.

The Americans regarded the control of the Great Lakes and, thus, the St Lawrence corridor, as the key to victory in Canada. Likewise, British authorities saw the region's defense as paramount. The difficulties of land communications made control of the lakes and rivers crucial. Neither side was prepared, and the war largely resolved itself into a shipbuilding race. The Americans, who had far greater shipbuilding facilities than the British, nevertheless allowed themselves to be forestalled.

In the second half of 1812 the British general, Sir Isaac Brock, lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, adopted measures for opposing the Americans on the frontier line, between Huron and Erie. The American brigadier-general William Hull invaded Canada on July 12 from Detroit, just south of Lake Saint Clair, between Huron and Lake Erie. His army was mainly composed of militiamen, who behaved badly. Hull's plans were revealed when his papers were captured in a boat. General Brock drove him back and forced him to surrender Detroit on August 16. Brock now promptly transferred himself to the eastern end of Erie, where the American general Henry Dearborn was attempting a second invasion. Brock fell in action on October 13 at the Battle of Queenston Heights while repulsing Dearborn's subordinate Stephen van Rensselaer, a political appointee with limited military skills. The Americans were driven back. On this field, their militia were mediocre.

The Canadian militia, on the other hand, performed well. French-Canadians found the anti-Catholic stance of most of the United States troublesome and recognized that British authority at least protected their religious and language rights. They believed that such rights would not be guaranteed under American rule. Those of British descent, United Empire Loyalists who fought for the Crown during the War of Independence, had settled primarily in Upper Canada and strongly opposed the American invasion. It should be noted that a large segment of Upper Canada's population were recent settlers from the United States who had no such loyalties to the Crown. American forces, to their dismay, were surprised to find that most of the colony took up arms against them.

The New England states' discontent with the war hampered the American generals and aided the British, who drew their supplies to a great extent from New Englanders. Rensselaer resigned as commander after the Battle of Queenston Heights and was replaced by General Alexander Smyth, who lacked command experience. After the unsuccessful Battle of Frenchman's Creek on November 28, Smyth left the service.

On Lake Ontario, American forces chose to attack Upper Canada's capital, York (now Toronto) in 1813, instead of the British garrison at Kingston—which was strategically valuable, and vital to British supply and communications along the St. Lawrence River. Despite the Americans' success in the Battle of York, British General Roger Sheaffe prevented the capture of two Royal Navy vessels. During the British retreat from York, he blew up the fort's gunpowder barrels and set the HMS Isaac Brock—still under construction—on fire. Another frigate, the HMS Duke of Gloucester, had been completed and set sail before the Americans landed at York. Without control of Kingston, the American navy could not effectively control Lake Ontario or sever the British supply line to Quebec. The burning of York also provoked retaliation which came in the form of the burning of Washington, D.C. in 1814.

On January 22, 1813, at Frenchtown, the American troops under Winchester surrendered to a British and Native force under Procter.

Battle of Lake Erie

During the winter both sides were busy in building ships. On Lake Ontario the Americans pushed on their preparations at Sackett's Harbour under Isaac Chauncey; the British were similarly engaged at Kingston. Sir James Lucas Yeo took command on the 15th of May 1813. On Lake Erie the American headquarters were at Presqu'Isle, now the city of Erie; the British at Fort Malden. The American commander was Captain Oliver Perry, the British commander, Captain Robert Barclay. On Lake Ontario Yeo created a more mobile though less powerful force than Chauncey's, and therefore manoeuvred to avoid being brought to close action. Three engagements, on August 10, September 11, and September 28, led to no decisive result. By the close of the war Yeo had constructed a ship of 102 guns which gave him superiority, and the British became masters of Lake Ontario. On Lake Erie the energy of Captain Perry, aided by what appears to have been the misjudgement of Barclay, enabled him to get a superior force by the 4th of August, and on the 10th of September he fought a successful action which left the Americans masters of Lake Erie.

The military operations were subordinate to the naval. On April 27, 1813 the Americans took York (now Toronto; see: Battle of York), and in May moved on Fort George; but a counter-attack by Yeo and Prevost on Sackett's Harbour, on May 29, made the Americans anxious about the safety of their base. Naval support failed the American generals, and they were paralysed. They gained a success on October 5 at the Battle of the Thames, where the Native American chief Tecumseh fell, but they made no serious progress.

The Americans then turned to the east of Lake Ontario, intending to assail Montreal by the St Lawrence in combination with their forces at the Battle of Lake Champlain. But the combination failed; they were severely harassed on the St Lawrence, and the invasion was given up. The Americans' inability to capture Kingston (a critical target which could have severed British channels along the St. Lawrence), and a superior British naval presence on Lake Ontario, denied American hopes for naval supremacy on the Great Lakes.

Niagara Campaign and the Battle of Lake Champlain

The operations of 1814 bear a close resemblance to those of 1813, with, however, one important difference. The American generals, including Major Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, had drastically improved the fighting abilities and discipline of the army. They were able to fight much more effectively. Their attack on the Niagara peninsula led to hot fighting at the Battle of Chippewa on July 5 and Lundy's Lane on July 25. The first was a success for the Americans, the second a drawn battle: the Americans took the British gun line at one point, but suffered high casualties and were forced to withdraw across the Niagara. They later resisted British and Canadian forces at the Siege of Fort Erie, and briefly held the fort. They were compelled to cross the border due to low provisions.

At this point, the fall of Napoleon freed the British government from the obligation to retain its army in Europe, and troops from Spain began to pour in. "Wellington's Invincibles" participated in actions from Niagara to Washington. In August 1814, Sir George Prevost attacked the American forces at Champlain. But he hurried his ill-prepared naval support into action at Plattsburgh on September 11 and it was defeated. Prevost then retired, despite having superior land forces. His management of the war, especially on Lake Champlain, was severely criticized. He was threatened with a court-martial, but died before the trial came on. A British occupation of part of the coast of Maine proved to be mere demonstration.

Operations on the American coast

When the war began, the British naval forces had some difficulty in blockading the whole coast. They were also preoccupied in their pursuit of American privateers under Rodgers, Decatur, and Bainbridge. The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, was willing to benefit from the discontent of the New Englanders. No blockade of New England was at first attempted. The Delaware and Chesapeake were declared in a state of blockade on December 26, 1812. This was extended to the whole coast south of Narragansett by November 1813, and to the whole American coast on May 31, 1814. In the meantime much illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. Eventually the United States government was driven to issue orders for the purpose of stopping illicit trading. This only helped to further ruin the commerce of the country. The overpowering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake, and to attack and destroy numerous docks and harbours. The burning by the American general McClure, on December 10, 1813, of Newark (Niagara-on-the-Lake), led to British retaliation (and similar destruction) at Buffalo, on December 30, 1813.

Chesapeake campaign and the Star-Spangled Banner

The best known of these destructive raids was the burning of public buildings, including the White House in Washington, by Sir George Cockburn, second in command to Sir Alexander Cochrane, who succeeded Warren in April in the naval command, and General Robert Ross. Ross' account reads:

Judging it of consequence to complete the destruction of the public buildings with the least possible delay, so that the army might retire without loss of time, the following buildings were set fire to and consumed – the capitol, including the Senate house and House of Representation, the Arsenal, the Dock-Yard, Treasury, War office, President's Palace, Rope-Walk, and the great bridge across the Potewmac.

The expedition was carried out between August 19 and August 29, 1814, and was well organized and vigorously executed. On the 24th the inexperienced American militia who had collected at Bladensburg, Maryland, to protect the capital, were soundly defeated, opening the route to Washington. President James Madison was forced to flee to Virginia, and after the burnings, American morale was reduced to it, even though people hit an all-time low. The British viewed their actions as fair retaliation for the Americans' burning of York in 1813, when the Americans carted away the mace of Parliament -- a symbol of the Crown's power -- from the capital as war booty.

Having destroyed Washington's public buildings, the British army next moved to capture Baltimore, a busy port and a key base for American privateers. The land portion of the subsequent Battle of Baltimore began with a British landing at North Point. General Ross was killed on September 12, 1814 in fighting with American militia, and the attack was repulsed. The British also attempted to attack Baltimore by sea on September 13, but were unable to reduce Fort McHenry, at the entrance to Baltimore Harbor. The defence of the fort against the British attack, by American forces under the command of Colonel George Armistead, inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem, "The Defence of Fort McHenry". The poem was later set to the tune "To Anacreon in Heaven" and under its new name, "The Star-Spangled Banner", was eventually adopted as the national anthem of the United States.

The Southwestern campaign

In March of 1814, General Andrew Jackson led a force of Tennessee militia, Cherokee Indians, and U.S. regulars southward to attack the Creek Indians, led by Chief Menawa. The Creeks had for many years been British allies. On March 26, Jackson and General John Coffee fought the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend, killing 800 of 1000 Creeks at a cost of 49 killed and 154 wounded of approximately 2000 American and Cherokee forces. Jackson pursued the surviving Creeks to Wetumpka, near present-day Montgomery, Alabama, where they surrendered.

According to one historian:

We speak of the War of 1812, but in truth there were two wars. The war between the Americans and the British ended with the treaty of Ghent. The war between the Big Knives [American frontiersmen] and the Indians began at Tippecanoe, and arguably did not run its course until the last Red Sticks were defeated in the Florida swamps in 1818.²

The Treaty of Ghent and the Battle of New Orleans

Jackson's forces moved to New Orleans, Louisiana in November 1814. Between December 1814 and January 1815, he defended the city against a force led by Major-General Sir Edward Pakenham, who was killed in an assault on January 8, 1815. The Battle of New Orleans was hailed as a great victory in the United States, making Andrew Jackson a national hero, eventually propelling him to the presidency.

Meanwhile, diplomats in Ghent, Belgium signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, paving the way for the official end of the war. News of the treaty had not reached New Orleans, because of the slow nature of international communications. On February 17, 1815, President Madison signed the American ratification of the Treaty of Ghent, and the treaty was proclaimed the following day.

By the terms of the treaty, all land captured by either side was returned to the previous owner, the Americans received fishing rights in the gulf of the St. Lawrence River, and all outstanding debts and property taken was to be returned or paid for. full. Later that year, John Quincy Adams complained that British naval commanders had violated the terms of the treaty by not returning American slaves liberated during the war. [1] (http://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/document_glc.php?glc_num=GLC3626)

Consequences of the war

The Treaty established status quo ante bellum. There were no territorial concessions made by either side. This was a concession to American successes in battle in 1814: before this, the British position was to hold all territory gained in battle. The issue of impressing American seamen was made moot when the Royal Navy stopped impressment.

Many Canadians consider the War of 1812 to have been an American defeat. From their point of view, the American invasions of 1813 and 1814 were repulsed. Further supporting this point of view is that the British occupied some American territory at the end of the war; however, the Americans did not occupy any British territory. However, from the American point of view, the war was a successful defense of American rights, which they claimed culminated in the victory at New Orleans. Because New Orleans was successfully defended, American expansion into the Southwest was possible.

Following the Treaty of Ghent, relations between the United States and Britain would remain peaceful, if not entirely tranquil, throughout the 19th century. Both nations made border adjustments in 1818 and established the line of 49 degrees North latitude as the international border west of the Lake of the Woods. Border disputes between the State of Maine and the Province of New Brunswick were settled in the 1830s (see Aroostook War).

No territorial gains were made by either side and impressment and Indian issues were put on hold. The United States however did gain worldwide respect for managing to withstand Britain. A growth in American manufacturing was caused by the formidable British blockade of the American east coast. The death of the Federalist Party also followed the war. The Great Lakes were no longer disputed but became shared property of Canada and Britain, and the United States. The Indian threat was at a minimum since Tecumseh had fallen and the Prophet was increasingly ridiculed and finally resorted to drink. However, the War of 1812 did not increase any involvement of the people in global affairs.

A significant military development was the increased emphasis by General Winfield Scott on improved professionalism in the U.S. Army officer corps, and in particular, the training of officers at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York. The American officer corps' professionalism was apparent during the 1846–1848 war with Mexico.

Effects of the war on the United States

The War of 1812 had a dramatic effect on the manufacturing capabilities of the United States of America. This was caused by the British blockade on the East North America. The morale of the citizens of the United States of America was high because they had fought one of the best armies in the world (at that time) and lived to see another day.

The war created a shortage of cotton cloth in the United States. Of necessity, the cotton-manufacturing industry became established in Massachusetts, first at Waltham, Massachusetts by Francis Cabot Lowell. In 1822, the village of Lowell, Massachusetts was founded by the Merrimac Manufacturing Company along the Merrimac River and named after him. In 1826, having grown very rapidly, it was chartered as a town. In 1830, the population of Lowell, Massachusetts was 6474.

Effects of the war on Canada

In both Canada and the United States the War of 1812 caused a great rise in nationalism. In the Canadian colonies, the war united the French-speaking and English-speaking colonies against a common enemy and they took pride in being able to throw the invaders back repeatedly. At the beginning of the War of 1812 it is estimated that perhaps one third of the inhabitants of Upper Canada were American born. Some were United Empire Loyalists but others had simply come for low-cost land and had little loyalty to the British Crown. Thus the war gave many inhabitants of Upper and Lower Canada a sense of nationhood as well as a sense of loyalty to Britain. For instance, Laura Secord was originally an American immigrant to Upper Canada, but did not hesitate to make her arduous trek to warn the British forces of a pending attack by her own former country.

This nationalistic sentiment also caused a great deal of suspicion of American ideas like responsible government which would frustrate political reform in Upper and Lower Canada until the Rebellions of 1837. However, the War of 1812 also started the process that ultimately led to Canadian Confederation in 1867. Although later events such as the Rebellions and the Fenian raids of the 1860s were more directly pivotal, Canadian historian Pierre Berton has written that if the War of 1812 had never happened Canada would be part of the United States today, as more and more American settlers would have arrived, and Canadian nationalism would never have developed.

Notes

• Note 1: Table numerical statistics source: Britain-USA War of 1812 (http://www.onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1800s/yr10/f1812.htm)
• Note 2: Sugden, p. 401.

References

• Elting, John R. Amateurs, To Arms! A Military History of the War of 1812. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin, 1991; reprinted Da Capo Press, 1995.
• Horsman, Reginald. The Causes of the War of 1812. New York: A.S. Barnes, 1962.
• -----. The War of 1812. New York: Knopf, 1969.
• Sugden, John. Tecumseh: A Life. New York: Holt, 1997.

• This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.

External links

• Galafilm's War of 1812 website (http://www.galafilm.com/1812/e/intro/index.html)
• Key Events of the War of 1812 (http://home.earthlink.net/~gfeldmeth/chart.1812.html)
• Journal of the Senate, June 1, 1812, with President Madison's war message to Congress (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsj&fileName=005/llsj005.db&recNum=147&itemLink=D?hlaw:2:./temp/~ammem_8ulW::@@@mdb=manz,eaa,aap,aaeo,rbaapcbib,aasm,ftvbib,aaodyssey,hh,gottscho,mharendt,bbpix,bbcards,spaldingbib,magbell,berl,lbcoll,rbpebib,calbkbib,tccc,lhbcbbib,cdn,cic,cwband,cwnyhs,gmd,mreynoldsbib,mtaft,cwar,cola,consrvbib,bdsbib,coolbib,coplandbib,curt,dag,musdibib,fsaall,mfd,papr,aep,fine,fmuever,dcm,cmns,flwpabib,afcreed,cowellbib,toddbib,lomaxbib,ngp,afcwwgbib,haybib,raelbib,hurston,gottlieb,mtj,alad,wpa,mal,scsm,mcc,mymhiwebib,mmorse,aipn,ncpm,ncpsbib,afcwip,fawbib,omhbib,pan,afcpearl,vv,wpapos,psbib,pin,presp,lhbprbib,qlt,ncr,relpet,mussm,dukesm,afcesnbib,mesnbib,llstbib,denn,amss,uncall,fpnas,svybib,runyon,wtc,lhbtnbib,detr,hlaw,lhbumbib,upboverbib,varstg,horyd,mgw,hawp,nawbib,suffrg,awh,awhbib,nfor,sgp,wright&linkText=1)